Chemistry

The properties of plastics are determined by the polymers that constitute the unit. Based on this, plastics can be modified into biodegradable products by varying the constituents synthetically. Their chemical structures vary due to the substituting polyesters in the polymer chain. Lets study about the chemical differences and structure of green plastics PHA and PLA. Amylose and Amylopectin are the major polymer components of starch. In the link structure, all identical chain points are connected to CH2OH group. The oxygen in the ring structure chain facilitates degradation when reacted with water. Any hybrid variety can be produced with two components renewable natural polymer (starch) and petroleum based synthetic polymer (PCL).

Polylactide (PLA) is a bioplastic basically made from starch, the basic building material. Here lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH) is produced through fermentation where microorganisms convert sugar feedstock into lactic acid. The lactic acid thus isolated is depolymerized to lactide and by Ring-opening polymerization with catalysts it is converted into Polylactide polymer of high molecular weight. Based on the particle size, the rate of biodegradability and transparency varies. They find use in soluble fibers, compose bags and renewable products.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) polymers are produced naturally by microorganisms directly from sugar feedstock. The polymer is isolated, purified and processed. These components can be controlled by varying the ratio of sugar feedstock. Synthesized PHA is copolyester composed of 3-hydroxy fatty acids hydroxybuterate, hydroxyvalerate and hydroxyhexanoate. In all PHAs the hydroxyl substituted carbon atom is steriochemical -R configuration. Since they are composed of short chain and long chain length R groups, they are used for a variety of commercial applications.

This essay is a review paper on the article Insulin by Nanette M. Wachter. The author of the article Insulin deals briefly about the various aspects of Insulin, namely- history, source, structure, manufacturing process, metabolic function and the clinical importance.  The article is well structured, written in a concise, coherent and impressive manner. The Chemical structure of Insulin is given in a pictorial form for easy understanding. This article is useful for beginners of Biochemistry and for all laymen for getting a grasp of the subject.

This article gives important information about Insulin. It covers details like The discovery of Insulin, natural and commercial sources of Insulin, its Chemical structure, and Biological functions.  The article also deals briefly about the causes of different types of Diabetes and the importance of Insulin in combating Type 1 Diabetes. The different formulations and the mode of administering the insulin are also discussed.

Insulin is a Biochemical which controls the metabolism of Glucose in animals including humans. It is a hormone, and is classified as a protein. Structurally, it is a cyclic peptide, having 51 amino acids, arranged in two chains, A and B, and the chains are linked by two disulphide bridges formed out of the Cysteine amino acids of both the chains. It is produced by the beta cells of pancreas.

Role of Insulin in metabolism of Glucose
Insulin, released to the blood stream by pancreas at the instance of rise of blood glucose, binds to the Insulin receptors on the cell membrane releasing the glucose transporter protein to
the surface of the cell membrane then the glucose transporter protein carries the glucose

molecule to the interior of the cells, for further metabolism. Thus in the absence of Insulin, glucose cannot be transported to the cells and the cells will starve of glucose. Hence, the failure of pancreas to produce insulin results in development of Type 1 Diabetes. Prior to its discovery in 1920s by a team consisting Frederick Grant Benting, John James Richard Macleod and Charles Best, there was no remedy for people having Type 1 Diabetes and this deficiency disease, caused by auto immune disorder, resulted in fatality with in a few years of onset.

Soon after its discovery, insulin was recovered from pancreas of cows and pigs for clinical use. Now human Insulin is produced by recombinant DNA Techniques. Current effort of mass production of human insulin is based on genetic engineering using bakers yeast having human genes.

In Type 2 Diabetic persons, though the pancreas produces Insulin, there is resistance in the tissues to insulin and hence glucose is not metabolized properly, resulting in Diabetes 2.

Insulin is a typical Bio chemical. It is found in living organisms (animal), and is synthesized by the beta cells of pancreas. The article deals with the Chemical structure, source, synthesis (natural and commercial), functions, and biochemical mechanism of its activity.

Though the article does not cover the subject extensively, nevertheless, it is informative. It deals with the relevant details connected to the deadly diseases  Diabetes. The details are given in an arranged, coherent and convincing manner. The data given are all useful and reliable.

The diagram of the structure of Insulin is very simple and easily understandable. We can
recommend this article to students (beginners) of Bio chemistry and to laymen for giving them a grasp of the basic knowledge about Diabetes and the relationship it has got with Insulin.

This week my contributions to the problem of global warming, and subsequently the size of my carbon footprint are the same as they are every week. My daily routine means that I am contributing a lot to the problem of global warming and adding to the levels of carbon dioxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. I drive my car every day, to school and to the shops, to see friends and to run other errands. I burn fossil fuels when having a BBQ at home or with friends, and I use chlorofluorocarbons during my daily routine. In order to cut down these levels of use, I would have to change my lifestyle in a number of ways, for example I could take public transport instead or walk to locations that are close to my home, I could switch the products that I use that contain methane and chlorofluorocarbons.

My personal contributions towards air pollution from exhaust fumes and other particles are quite large. As noted previously the exhaust fumes from my car are adding to the air pollution problem. The possible actions that could be taken to lower these levels of contribution would be to change my car for a more environmentally friendly automobile such as the Toyota Prius. I could also decide to ration the use of my car, and use it on alternate days instead of every day of the week.

My personal contributions towards ozone depletion are also fairly large, and they include aerosol use from deodorants and other products that I use that come in a compressed can. Actions to reduce my own levels of contribution to the ozone depletion issue could involve switching to non aerosol based products or to check the products before purchase to ensure they contain no chlorofluorocarbons. Since the problem with the hole in the ozone layer, chlorofluorocarbons have been slowly phased out of most of the aerosol products around the world.

The contributions made to the LA smog problem are again quite big, and could be reduced in some ways. My use of a car, of aerosols, along with having BBQs are things that I do nearly every day, and are things I should try to stop. Rationing my use of these products would help to reduce emission levels.

There is a tree outside my parents house, which has been there since I can remember, and when I was a child I used to climb the tree regularly and play there with friends, we made a tree house and had a lot of fun in this tree when I was younger. I brought the tree a wheelbarrow of composted material from my parents recycled organic waste and spread this around the base of the tree, I then gave the tree a drink of water from the hosepipe and said thank you to it for the oxygen it provides as well as apologizing to the tree for the damage the human race are causing the planet and to many millions of other trees around the world. I felt sad doing this, because the tree outside my parents house is very lucky compared to some trees that are being destroyed for illegal logging, and fossil fuel consumption. I was not aware that this is common in many cultures, but I am not surprised to find out that it is, we in the western, modernized world have forgotten our roots and what made us into the race of people we are, and that we have only begun to destroy the world in this way during the last one hundred fifty years since the industrial revolution. I think it should be commonplace to do this in our culture, and it may make people more aware of the damage we are causing the planet as a race, and may help to combat global warming and the destruction of our forests. I think it would make a big difference to the mentality of people if they were made to say thank you to nature for what it has given us as a species, and I think this idea would help change our collective attitudes and make us more aware as people if we were to adopt this idea and make sure at an elementary school level students are taught to do this as a requirement for their biology classes.

Phosphorous is a major essential element found in abundance to forms of life for their activities. Other than in life activities, it is also important in diverse applications and so many other industries. In nature phosphorus is never found free. Because of its reactivity with air and other oxygen containing substances it occurs as bound to other elements mostly as inorganic phosphate in minerals. Phosphorus is the eleventh most abundant element on the surface of the earth. Some of the most popular and widely occurring ores are apatite, found in rock phosphate. Apatite is an impure tricalcium mineral. Others are phosphorite, phosphorate and some others.    

Phosphorous is a polyvalent non-metal grouped in the nitrogen group of the periodic table of the chemical elements. Elemental phosphorous exists in white and red forms. Whit phosphorous reacts with air to glow due a phenomenon called phosphorescence (a kind of chemiluminiscence). With an atomic number of 15 and denoted by the chemical symbol P, phosphorous is used by all plants. In P-deficient soils it is given as phosphate fertilizers. Algae thriving on soils and water bodies are due to eutrophication (1) and indicate high phosphate levels. In biological systems phosphorous in a dynamic state both as free as unique inorganic phosphate (Pi) andor as bound in mostly organic forms such as with nucleotides and ATPADP and many other molecules.

The major use of phosphates is as agricultural fertilizers. Phosphorous has no synthetic source and is dependent upon mining only and is used and wasted as never earlier. Therefore there is warning signal of the impending shortage of phosphate very soon as early as in the next three decades phosphate sources. There is an international urge to look for alternate sources as well recycling of the used phosphates. In the either situations the critical requirement is that of a reliable cheap and a rapid technique for determination of phosphorous.

The analytical chemistry of phosphorus is very important in many fields, for example, medical and clinical science, agriculture, metallurgy and environmental science. Moreover, in recent years large quantities of phosphate have been used in beverages, detergents, fertilizers6 and also in sugar industries.
Phosphorus is designated as an important plant nutrient and as a result comprises a significant part of agricultural fertilizers and phosphate production has sharply risen in the past half a century. However, phosphorus-based compounds typically have a low solubility. The issue of phosphorus determination has attracted considerable academic research. Pardo et al (2) outline the growth in phosphate concentrations in water and attribute this to increased eutrophication. Environmental problems created by phosphorus and many other inorganic and organic pollutants have generated a great interest in improving methods for accurate and rapid qualitative and quantitative determination of phosphorus.

Definition
In water phosphorous can exist in different forms. The total phosphorus concentration denotes the aggregate of the percentages of these of these percentages. According to Pardo et al (2), labile phosphorus, phosphorus is usually linked with aluminium, iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides. In contrast, phosphorus is often linked with calcium, both in organic and residual phosphorus with calcium, organic phosphorus and residual phosphorus. The aggregation of labile phosphorus and phosphorus connected to AlFeMn oxyhydrates is referred to as non-apatite inorganic phosphorus (NAIP) and calcium associated phosphorus is also named apatite phosphorus (AP). These forms of phosphorus are the most important fractions and this paper will limit its scope to determining these forms of phosphorus.

The need and Contexts for Phosphorus Analysis 
In such diverse situations the need for phosphorus analysis is only underestimated and understated in policy matters. The complexity and diversity of the needs are so very wide that a generalized approach may never be possible. There are the environmental issues concerning, water, air, soils and mineral sites. The quantity ranges required for analysis in such situations would be in milligrams or grams. On the other hand in a biological context would be in milligrams or much less. In clinical researches the accuracy and quantities would be much finer. In a purely analytical sense a different strategy would be required for very high purity detection by more sophisticated and expensive methods but for a high precision

Thesis Statement
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate some commonly used laboratory techniques employed to classify the percentage of phosphorus present and its concentration. Various techniques of differing complexity exist to achieve this outcome and the paper will classify the best methods that provide precise means of detecting phosphorus using modern chemical experimental equipment.

Literature Review
Various phosphate determination procedures have been developed for a long time and used reported (3). Some of the popularly used methods are titrometry, complexogravimetry, colorimetry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, flow injection analysis, HPLC and spectrophotometry methods. Spectrophotometry uses molybdovanadate and ammonium molybdate are most commonly used. In ammonium molybdate spectrophotometric method, different reductants have been employed such as tin(II) chloride, ascorbic acid and 1-amino-2-naphthol-4-sulfonic acid.

Spectroscopy methods are popular because of the sensitivity of the method and ease of converting organic phosphorous into a blue colored complex by several reducing agents. These methods or modifications are based on the original report by Bell, R. D. and Doisy (5). Many modifications of this original method are available (e.g., 4, 6, later 7, 8 and many more). Some of the most recent methods based on this principle but with modifications are 9, 12,12a, 12b, 12c and many more.

One of the oldest methods most popularly used method was described by Fiske and Subbarow (4). They used the reduction of phosphomolybdic acid by hydroquinone suggested earlier by Bell and Daisy (5) modified later by Briggs (6), many later modifications) for blood and urine analysis for phosphorus. This method has stayed so long with many modifications (see 7, 8 chen et al brenblaum, and many more). Both the two earlier papers differed. In the Briggs procedure during the synthesis of phosphomolybdic acid and its subsequent reduction by hydroquinone, the concentration of the latter was reduced to 150th of that suggested by Bell and Daisy (51920). But this alteration was not without its weaknesses such as despite the prolonged treatment with hydroquinone from 5 min in Bell and Daisy to 30 min by Briggs(6), the intensity of the blue color is not as much as seen in the earlier procedure. The basic principle of the process is the conversion of phosphate to phosphomolybdic acid followed by its reduction by sulphuric acid to result in a blue substance. Among the various reducing substances Fiske and Subbarow (4) found the use of 1, 2, 6- aminonaphthol sulphonic acid to be superior and this produced very encouraging results. This substance acts rapidly in excess of equimolar quantities of the sulfonic acid and also giving accurate results in short time.  
Fiske and Subbarow (4) conjectured the possibility of interfering substances during extraction of phosphorus from organic substances and also the eventualities of the formation other interfering compounds in the earlier processes. He analyzed various reducing substances which were available.

In the standard method for phosphorus analysis only phosphate, called the reactive phosphate is measured. The reason is that what is actually measured is phosphomolybdate which is the product of molybdate reaction itself. In other words phosphorus which is available for reactions for further analysis is called the reactive phosphorus. In many samples phosphorus may not be available in that form. Therefore the samples have to be treated with other process such as digestionextraction, filtration, purification and so on before the concentrations can be determined through the colorimetric methods. Different phosphorus species (are distinguished from each other empirically by filtration), and then a series of digestions that selectively convert phosphorus to phosphate. After the digestion phosphate is measured. Reactive phosphate is then determined in each digest

For total phosphorus determination sample is digested to convert all phosphorus compounds to phosphate. The digest is filtered and phosphate is then measured, usually by molybdenum blue. The most widely used method is that of Fiske and Subbarow with many modifications. The modifications are in the extraction procedures or chemicals and also the use of reducing agent. The modifications can also be large interferences by heavy metals such as arsenic.

Molybdate ascorbate method is one of the most widely used procedures. As and recommended by American Public Health Association (9) there are following basic steps are described
Digestion This is to facilitate availability of phosphorous bound in organic forms as orthophosphate. Perchloric acid digestion is very strong and requires long time and is therefore suggested for difficult water samples with heavy sediments. Digestion of some samples is also facilitated by UV light treatment along with persulfate oxidation in an automated digestion-determination by flow injection method. The Nitric acid-Sulfuric acid is generally suggested for most samples.

Colorimetric Method As mentioned above the basic principle are using blue complexes with molybdate for reading color reading in a colorimeterspectrophotometer. The choice of the exact method to be used depends upon the expected range of concentrations in the samples. For very small quantities ranging   between 0.01 to 6 mg PL ascorbic acid or the stannous chloride suggested by Murphy and Riley (8) method is the choice. For lower ranges than this, an extraction step has to be incorporated to remove the interfering substances.  The popularity of the ascorbic acid method has been great enough for developing an automated method and its availability presently.

For routine analysis in the range of 1 to 20 mg PL, vanadomolybdophosphoric acid method is most useful choice.

Comparison of Efficacy of Methods There are few research reports which provide a comparative analysis of the efficiency of on method with another. Chamberlain and Shapiro (10) compared the phosphorus concentrations of 13 water samples as determined by several chemical procedures. After employing the algal biomass assay, they found that there were appreciable differences among these methods. They attributed arsenic interference as the reason and not the phosphate hydrolysis compounds. The reason for this is that arsenate forms the same blue color as phosphate but arsenic concentrations as much as 100 gL do not interfere. They therefore recommend the use of arsenate insensitive extraction procedure. But it is not known if the arsenic concentrations are higher.  

It has to be pointed out that pH strongly affects the color of molybdate blue complex. While arsenic is serious interfering substance barium, lead and silver form precipitate as phosphates easily but the effects were not very significant. Similar observations have been mentioned for silica.

Allarino (12) compared three methods of Mehlich (12a, Olsen and Bray for estimating available P on Iowa calcareous soils or across soils of varying soil pH. Their results demonstrate that the Olsen and the Mehlich-3 methods are more reliable tools than the Bray-P1 method for estimating available P on Iowa calcareous soils or across soils varying in soil pH. Because these methods seem to have similar ability to the Bray-P1 for estimating available P on neutral and slightly acid soils the results suggest that either the Olsen or Mehlich-3 methods would be much better than the Bray-P 1 test when a single soil-test for P is used for routine analysis of Iowa soils. It is noteworthy, however that there was a small proportion of calcareous soils in which estimations of available P by any of the three methods were unsatisfactory. Further research is being conducted to explain these results.

The Mehlich-3 extractant proposed as a universal extractant is an attractive method for routine soil testing because of its reliability for neutral or slightly acid soils. But there is a lack of information on correlations and crop-responses of the phosphorus concentrations.

Future 
With the phosphorus availability becoming bleak there is a stronger growing need for a widely test for phosphorus analysis including the extractiondigestion procedure.

Interfering substances have been unpredictable and therefore difficult to anticipate the diversity and ranges of available concentrations. This is particularly important because of the urgency of the environmental contamination problems. Different elemental and their compounds together only confound and confuse the prospects and situation of analytical approaches. While many techniques are available they are all confined to laboratories that are well equipped and manned by trained technical experts.

A field level portable phosphorus test method for rapid analysis is very necessary.

There is no standardized comparison of all the tests available presently. The diversity of soils, waters and organic samples for analysis is wide enough to warrant at least some tests. In the case of phosphorus one possibility for improving laboratory efficiency would be to use a single extractant for multiple purposes

Preservation of food is very important because it aims at preventing microbial spoilage of food products and growth of food borne pathogens. There are a number of methods used to preserve food and among them is radiation. Preserving food by radiation means ionizing radiation also known as irradiation. The process involves exposing food to ionizing radiation that destroys microorganisms, insects, bacteria or virus that might be present in food. The method works through processing of food with ionizing radiation by gamma rays, high-energy electrons or x-rays from accelerators (Tomoda, 2006). Treatment of food through this process has certain effects which include killing insect pests, molds, bacteria, inducing sterility and reducing spoiling or ripening of fruits. The technology of food preservation by radiation is compared with cold pasteurization because the food products are not heated. Food preservation by radiation is applicable in preserving food of high initial quality, as it is not always effective against viruses.

Radiation process is unrelated to nuclear energy although it uses radiation emitted from radioactive nuclides produced in nuclear reactors. Food irradiation is one of the best applications of atomic energy in food preservation since development of canning. It is an alternative to fumigants which are being phased out because of their negative effects to human health and environment. Preserving food by radiation is more advantageous than using other food preservation methods because it does not lead to loss of quality, oduor, flavour or texture (Ann, 2008). Radiation is used to preserve almost all types of foodstuffs as long as they are of initial high quality. Radiation processing is used for anti-infestation of food grains inhibit sprouting in potatoes, onions, ginger or yam, and prevention of microbial contamination of species. In addition, food preservation by radiation extends shelf life under certain conditions of storage including overcoming of quarantine barriers in international trade.

The structure and function of the protein product of a cDNA sequence isolated from Haemonchus contortus was predicted using computational tools.  The 951-base pair cDNA sequence generated a 317-amino acid residue polypeptide that was characterized with tandem helices, as well as threads and coils.  Tertiary protein structure prediction indicated that the protein traversed the cell membrane, with both N- and C-terminal located within the cytoplasm of the cell.  BLAST analysis of the translated sequence showed that the predicted polypeptide was highly homologous to serinethreonine phosphatases of other invertebrate species.  The predicted protein sequence harbored two conserved domains, namely specific to that of metallophosphatases and the serinethreonine phosphatases.  Computational analysis facilitates in the design of molecular manipulations that could target specific amino acids for the inactivation of the protein.  The predicted protein product could therefore be involved in the regulation of cellular processes such as cell cycle progression, cell differentiation and cell migration.

INTRODUCTION

Majority of the biological processes in a cell are governed by the reactions involving the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins. These molecular switches regulate the expression of genes, as well as the progression of the cell cycle.  In addition, cellular differentiation is also controlled by the transfer of phosphate groups to or from a specific protein (Liu et al 2008).  Other cellular processes that are influenced by protein phosphorylation include programmed cell death, cellular transformation and transmission.
Phosphatases are the main proteins involved in the transfer of phosphate groups to or from a specific protein substrate (Davare et al 2000).  Biochemical investigations have resulted in the identification of a number of phosphatases, with parallel sub-classification schemes based on their functional capacity.  Phosphatases could be further grouped according to their specificity to specific substrates (Pais et al 2009).  As such, there are therefore serinethreonine phosphatases, as well as tyrosine phosphatases.  Interestingly, there are certain phosphatases that confer dual specificity, wherein the enzyme has the capability of using both serinethreonine and tyrosine as its substrate (Bakan et al 2008).

There are currently a number of serinethreonine phosphatases that have been identified, with each type classified according to their mechanism of action and dependence on cofactors (Golden et al 2008).  To date, the largest group is the protein phosphatase (PP) family, which is comprised of 7 subfamilies.  It has been reported that majority of the phosphorylation activities within the cell are performed by serinethreonine phosphatases PP1 and PP2A (Adams et al 2005).  Another group of protein phosphatases is characterized by its dependence on metal ions (PPMs).

The advent of computational techniques has allowed researchers to study macromolecules using a different approach, mainly involving sequence analysis and prediction strategies.  Such novel method has been applied to almost every area of biomedical research, from basic biological processes to drug discovery.  In the field of biochemistry, computational methods have facilitated in protein structure and function predictions, which could subsequently lead to the discovery of protein targets for molecular therapeutics.  However, it should be understood that the quality and reliability of data generated by bioinformatics tools are dependent on human reasoning and thus the researcher still controls the direction and progression of the computational analysis.
This report will focus on the computational prediction of the structure and function of a complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) sequence that was isolated from the strongylid nematode, Haemonchus contortus.  This species commonly thrives as a parasite in small ruminant vertebrate species.  This study will initially predict various levels of protein configurations based on the cDNA sequence of interest.

Furthermore, this investigation will attempt to determine putative functional sites within the predicted protein, in order to infer possible roles of the protein product in the cell.  We hypothesize that the protein product of Hc-STP-1 carries specific amino sequence motifs that serve as binding sites for other proteins of the cell.  In addition, the putative protein of Hc-STP-1 may have active sites the influence the rate of binding with other cellular proteins.  Candidate interacting proteins will also be presented in this study, alongside prospective approaches for inhibition and enhancement of phosphorylation reactions within the cell.

RESULTS

Translation of the 951-base pair cDNA sequence of serinethreonine phosphatase-1 derived from Haemonchus contortus (Hc-STP-1) using BLASTX 2.2.23 (Altschul 1997) generated a primary polypeptide chain of approximately 317 amino acids in length (Figure 1).  Secondary protein structure prediction of the translated primary polypeptide chain using PSIPRED (Yang et al 2010) resulted the identification of regions that showed specific configurations (Figure 2).  Majority of the secondary protein configuration were observed to have high levels of confidence in prediction, as indicated in the blue bars above the predicted secondary protein structures.

The secondary protein configuration was mainly composed of helices that were distributed across the entire stretch of the polypeptide chain.  A total of 12 helices were found in the predicted secondary protein structure, with varying lengths ranging from 4 to 17 amino acids in length.  In addition, there were 13 strands that were distributed across the entire stretch of the polypeptide chain.  The length of the strands also varied, yet were relatively shorter as compared to that of the helices, ranging from 2 to 6 residues in length.  The remaining regions of the secondary polypeptide structure were predicted to follow a coiled configuration.

One peculiar feature of the predicted secondary structure was that amino acid residues 121 to 160 was largely predicted as three tandem coils with very short coils of 1-3 residues in between.  More specifically, two of the three coils located at residues 140 to 160 only had one amino acid residue in between and this is located at residue 152.  It is possible that this region of the polypeptide chain may be directed towards further conformational changes that may influence its interaction with other substrates.

Prediction of the tertiary structure of Hc-STP-1 using MEMSAT-SVM (Nugent 2010) resulted in a protein structure that traversed the cell membrane (Figure 3).  Both N- and C-
terminals of the protein were located within the cytoplasm of the cell.  Two major helical segments traverse the cell membrane, the first helix starts at residue 93 and runs through to residue 108.  The second helix runs from residue 147 to 162.  Amino acid residues 109 to 146 are located at the extracellular side of the cell membrane.

The BLASTX results also provided similarity searches in the protein database of GenBank.  The translated sequence of Hc-STP-1 was found to be highly similar (90 to 95 sequence identity) to four serinethreonine phosphatase enzymes of Trichostrongylus virtrinus.  The GenBank entries are as follows embCAM84506.1, embCAM84505.1, embCAM84509.1 and embCAM84507.1.  The protein alignments shown in Figures 4 through 7 indicate where similarities were evident, as well as where differences were observed.  Gaps were inserted within the query sequence in order to attain a global alignment of the query and the database protein.

Identification of conserved domains within the polypeptide sequence indicated that the product of Hc-STP-1 contained sequence motifs that conferred regulatory functions in relation to the cell cycle.  In addition, the polypeptide sequence also showed motifs associated with the synthesis of specific proteins that were responsible for the normal physiology of the cell.  Given the high similarity of the translated Hc-STP-1 sequence with identified proteins in the database, it is highly likely that the protein product of the cDNA query would function as a phosphatase.

DISCUSSION

The employment of bioinformatics tools has facilitated in the prediction of protein structure and function of the cDNA sequence of Hc-STP-1.  From a 951-base pair DNA sequence isolated from Haemonchus contortus, a 317-amino acid residue polypeptide chain was predicted from the BLASTX translation feature.  Further prediction analysis has generated the secondary configuration of the protein of interest.  Bioinformatics has allowed the identification of identification of amino acid segments that would configure into coils, thread or sheets.  Such prediction is mainly based on the combination of amino acids that are present within a defined polypeptide length.

The presence of helices within a secondary protein configuration allows the macromolecule to achieve a condensed state as it progresses to its final tertiary or quaternary structure.  In addition, the strands within the secondary protein configuration allow interactions between other amino acids within the protein sequence.  The strands also allow interactions between two different proteins, as these structures are capable of arranging themselves in a parallel orientation between each other.

Secondary protein structure prediction has determined that the polypeptide chain is predominantly composed of helices.  The region of the polypeptide chain that was covered with helices was also observed in the predicted tertiary structure.  It should be understood that in order for a protein to exist within the cell membrane and at the same time attain its normal physiological function, it is essential that this specific region exist as a helix.  Such configuration has been predicted in the tertiary structure of the Hc-STP-1 protein.  The helical structure facilitates in the protection of polar amino acids within the inner side of the helix.  On the other hand, the amino acids that have non-polar R groups are positioned in the outer side of the helical structure.  This polarity preserves the protein and thus maintains its protein functionality, as it exists within the bipolar plasma membrane of the cell.

Sequence alignments using the predicted protein of Hc-STP-1 showed that the sequence was highly homologous to other identified serinethreonine phosphatases.  The protein alignments serve as tools in quantifying the exert of similarity of a pair of protein sequences and this also allows the identification of blocks of amino acid sequence that have been conserved across different taxa.  There are two major types of conserved domains that have been detected in the predicted protein of cDNA Hc-STP-1.
Metallophosphatases (MPPs) are considered as a superfamily of enzymes that have the inherent capacity to interact with metal ions.  Such interactions with managanese or zinc ions assist in the caging of specific polar amino acids such as histidine and asparagine.  The most common metallophosphatases include exonucleases, phosphoprotein phosphatases and sphingomyelinases.  This conserved region is composed of a beta-pleated sheet that is positioned between two metal-dependent active sites that are localized to the C-terminal side of protein region.  The metallophosphatase domain facilitates in the coordinated interaction with metal ions within the cell s environment.

Another conserved domain that has been identified within the predicted polypeptide of the cDNA Hc-STP-1 is that of the serinethreonine phosphatase.  This domain is capable of transferring a phosphate group from one site to another in the presence of either the serine or threonine amino acid residue in its active site.  The presence of these conserved domains allows the design of future protein manipulations that could deactivate the protein.  More importantly, the prediction of the structure and function of the cDNA sequence allows researchers to design molecular treatments that could target such proteins, especially when they are found to be highly active or over-expressed.  Certain medical conditions, such as cancer and metabolic syndromes, are commonly characterized with active expression of proteins that regulate major cellular processes such as cell division and differentiation.  The prediction of the structure and function of a cDNA sequence through the use of bioinformatics tools will facilitate in future investigations that would want to address methods in regulating such biological pathways.

CONCLUSION

Computational analysis has predicted that the protein product of the cDNA Hc-STP-1 is a serinethreonine phosphatase that is very similar to paralogous sequences in other species.  The predicted protein is a 317-amino acid polypeptide that contains coils, threads and helices.  The protein has been predicted to traverse the cell membrane, with both N- and C-terminal located within the cytoplasm of the cell.  Molecular targets can be designed to regulate the activity of the predicted protein within the cell.

Calcium carbonate, also referred to as Calcium trioxocarbonate (CaCO3), is one of the most widely available chemical compounds on the earth. It occurs naturally in the earth crust, and is said to make up approximately 7 percent of the earths crust (Calcium Carbonate, 2006). The compound goes by different common names such as calcite, limestone, chalk, pearl, marble, aragonite, etc. Naturally, calcium carbonate can be found in almost all rocks. It can also be found in the hard shells of some organisms such as pearls, snails, and eggshells.

Calcium carbonate occurs in two forms with different geometric structural arrangements of the constituent elements (calcium, carbon, and oxygen). The two crystalline forms are calcite and aragonite. Calcium carbonate, when extracted in a pure form exists as a white powder which has a specific gravity of 2.71 (calcite) or 2.93 (aragonite) (Calcium Carbonate, 2006).

Calcium carbonate does not dissolve easily in water. It is poorly soluble in pure water. It has a relative molecular mass of 100gmol. The bond type between the two major ions calcium ion (Ca2) and carbonate ion (CO32-) is the electrovalent type. It has the following chemical properties reaction with acids to liberate carbon dioxide and water, reaction with water and carbon dioxide to form carbon bicarbonate, and production of calcium oxide and carbon dioxide when heated to temperatures above 900oC.

Calcium carbonate is a very important compound because it is has numerous natural, health and industrial uses. It is used in medicine as a form of therapy in peptic ulcer diseases. It is used as an antacid as a result of its property of reacting with acids in the stomach, liberating carbon dioxide and water. It is also used in construction industries as building materials. In particular, it is used to make cement or mortar which is used to hold blocks together. Again, calcium carbonate is used in the steel manufacturing companies. It is used specifically to absorb any impurity in the molten steel material. Another use of this compound is in the manufacture of papers and glass.

There are different methods of preparation of calcium carbonate. The method which is being investigated in this experiment is one of the most common methods of preparation of the compound. Large amounts of calcium carbonate (especially for industrial uses) are prepared by mining and quarrying. Small amounts can be produced in the laboratory, or can be extracted from a pure mined source. In the laboratory, it is produced by reacting calcium oxide or quicklime (CaO) with water (H2O). This reaction ends with the production of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Carbon dioxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide solution. The end result of this reaction is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The reactions are as follows
CaO  H20 ---------- Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2  CO2 ------------ CaCO3  H2O
The significance of this investigation is to examine the possibility of preparing calcium carbonate with the above method.

The aim of this experiment is to learn about the preparation of calcium carbonate. This experiment attempts to verify the hypothesis that the above stated method can be used to prepare calcium carbonate.

The foods that we eat and the air we inhale significantly affects our toxic load. Toxic load is the accumulation of foreign molecules or chemicals in biological systems. The accumulation of toxic compounds can be calculated by obtaining the product of chemical concentration and time (Health and Safety Executive, 2008). Other scientists use amperometric and potentiometric biosensors in determining toxic loads. These methods utilize enzymes such as aldehyde dehydrogenase, cholinesterase, peroxidases, acetolactate synthetase and acid phosphatases. Enzyme-based methods take advantage of enzyme inhibition to determine toxic load. We can however estimate our toxic load depending on the exposures of toxic or xenobiotic compounds.

There are a number of chemicals that are being taken from the food we eat, drink, the air we breathe and other products that touch our skin. Some of the chemicals include major pollutants such as mercury, lead and lithium which accumulate in our systems. Some batteries that power our laptops, phones and handheld devices are made of lithium and mercury. Because of poor e-recycling, these elements get to the soil and enter the food web and into human systems. The accumulation of these chemicals may have serious neurological problems in humans among other negative effects (Health and Safety Executive, 2008). Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), an ingredient in pesticides gets into our bodies through inhalation or taking foods that have pesticide residues. Flame retarding chemicals such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) have been known to cause significant neurological and reproductive problems in rats and mice although little is known about their effects in humans (National Geographic). We are constantly exposed to a variety of other chemicals and it is estimated that the toxic load for chemicals such as 1, 2-Dichroethane could be as high as 3.6 X  105 ppm.min (Health and Safety Executive, 2008). Exposure to 1, 2-Dicholoroethane occurs through inhalation and may cause serious kidney and lung disorders.  

The food we eat contributes to significant accumulation of toxic chemicals. Carcinogenic compounds commonly in preserved foods have the potential of causing cancer. Majority of additives used to improve the taste of foods or add color to foods contain chemical elements that can cause serious harm to human health. For instance, preserved fish in supermarkets have significant amounts of mercury. The increasing need for fish proteins has made fish consumption to peak. The more we consume the preserved fish, the more we increase our toxic loads.

We use cars on a daily basis and avoiding car use is near impossible. There is an increased level of toxic chemicals from car effluents in the United States. The car effluents produce heavy metals such as lead and mercury that further increases the toxic load in our bodies. These heavy metals get into our systems through the lungs and cause serious changes in our systems. The working of the hormones as well as the normal function of the immune system can be affected by the increased toxic loads in our bodies (Health and Safety Executive, 2008).

In general, it is important to know the levels of toxic chemicals in our bodies. Chemicals in our homes, the foods we take and the water we use contribute to increased toxic loads. The factories and gas emissions from cars also contribute to an increased toxic load in our bodies. This has resulted to an increase in disease cases among populations and it is now time to be cautious on how we relate with Mother Nature. If we abuse the environment, the environment will hurl back the insults with equal or greater magnitude.

There are several substances that are used by different people in day to day life. Some of the substances are legal whereas others are illegal. Legal substances include drugs used for different treatments and even vaccines. Illegal substances include heroin, cocaine and other hard drugs. These substances may cause serious damages.

There are several non steroidal drugs (NSAIDS) that have been used for a long time without knowing their effects on the body. Drugs such as aspirin normally irritate the lining of the stomach wall and subsequently lead to development of ulcers in such patients. Prolonged use of NSAIDS predisposes an individual to ulcers. Ulcers lead to continuous bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract, perforation of the walls and obstruction of the lumen due to the extensive scarring from the wound. The obstruction eventually leads to vomiting since food is not able to pass. Such individuals therefore end up loosing weight. These drugs can be bought by anyone since they do not require any prescription from a physician (The American College of Gastroentology Para 1). Most of them have an effect on the gastrointestinal tract and it is important to ask for advice before taking the drugs. Therefore, though the drug is effective in the reduction of pain, its prolong use can cause serious problems (The American College of Gastroentology Para. 3).

Heavy alcohol use has serious effects on almost every organ system such as the brain, liver and heart. Alcohol impairs the brain function of an individual. Such an individual will behave awkwardly and also looses balance. It causes psychological problems and the person may become violent. It might lead to accidents in the roads since such an individuals motor centers in the brain have been impaired. It leads to the development of peripheral neuropathies manifested by numbness of the legs and the arms. Long term consumption of alcohol has an effect on the liver. It damages the liver and leads to liver cirrhosis. Liver is an important organ in the body whose main function is to get rid of toxins in the body. Its damage, therefore, causes these toxins to accumulate in the body. This in turn affects the entire organs of the body such as the pancreas (leading to pancreatitis). Chronic alcoholism leads to the development of ulcers (peptic ulcers), gastritis, gastric cancers, varices and malabsorption. It also has an effect on the reproductive system leading to testicular atrophy and impotence. Other diseases which occur as a result of alcoholism include hepatitis and heart disease (E-Medicine Health Para. 4).

Cigarettes have several chemicals that affect our health. Some of these chemicals include nicotine, tar, cadmium and carbon monoxide that is released in the environment. Cigarettes smoking leads to several deficiencies in the body such as vitamin E deficiency, vitamin B deficiency, among other vital vitamins that the body needs. People who smoke cough continuously and may also develop cataracts. Smoking leads to damage through oxidative process. When this occurs in the eyes, the end result is formation of cataracts. Smoking also leads to problems of the heart (heart disease), cancer of the lungs and stroke. These usually result into death and are considered the major cause of deaths in the many countries (E-Medicine Health Para. 6).

Marijuana use is considered illegal in the United States. It contains more harmful chemical substances than cigarettes. It highly irritates the lungs and predisposes the person to lung cancer. Other common effects include loss of memory and in-coordination. It has been established that it contains delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which is the major intoxicant. Hashish (found in marijuana) has a higher percentage of THC. It has also been established that individuals who smoke marijuana usually end up using more dangerous drugs such as cocaine (E-Medicine Health Para. 8).

Cocaine, which has been abused for along time in the U.S., has both short and long term effects in the body. It is an illegal substance which can be smoked, swallowed or injected. The drug can also be snorted. Their short term effect includes development of stroke due to constricted vessels in the brain. Cocaine also leads to serious depression and heart problems. When used for a long period of time, the drug causes extensive damages in the lungs, kidneys, brain and the lungs (E-Medicine Health Para. 9).

Heroin is an illegal substance which is addictive and may result in to death of the user.  Intoxication by heroin makes the person to feel drowsy, diarrhea and have abdominal pain. It also slows down the rate of breathing and this is the major cause of death. Most persons who inject themselves with heroin do so with one needle. These are shared among the rest of the people and this is a potential way of spreading HIVAIDS and other blood borne diseases. Other drugs such as methamphetamine have serious effects. This drug is used in the same manner as cocaine. It is a dangerous drug which potentially causes an increase in the blood pressure and development of stroke. Most of its effects are the same as cocaine (E-Medicine Health Para. 11).

Pregnant mothers need to keep off drugs unless it is very important to take them. During pregnancy, most drugs might have serious effects on the developing fetus and even harm it. It has been reported that most women (about 90) use drugs such as tobacco, illegal drugs and alcohol. Most birth defects in the fetus are mainly due to these drugs (The Merck Manuals Para 1).

Thalidomide, for example leads to defects in many organs of the fetus such as legs, arms, heart, intestines and vessels in infants born to mothers who used it when they were pregnant (The Merck Manuals Para 5).

Other drugs that cause effects include isotretinoin which has been used in the management of skin condition. Even if its use is stopped and pregnancy occurs within two weeks, the defects may still occur (The Merck Manuals Para 7). Antihypertensive drugs (such as thiazide diuretics) that some pregnant women use may end up affecting the normal functioning of the placenta. This is due to the fact that these drugs may sometimes have a rapid effect in lowering the pressure in the mother and subsequently that of blood flowing to the placenta. Other group of drugs which may lead to serious effects include antianxiety drugs such as diazepam, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, anticoagulants, sex hormones and vaccines. Chloramphenicol (antibiotic) results in to Gray baby syndrome. This mainly occurs in the women who have a hormone deficiency (glucose-6-phoshate dehydrogenase). Other antibiotics may also lead to deafness as a result of damage to the ears, hemolysis of the red blood cells and even death (The Merck Manuals Para 9).

These substances therefore lead to serious damages in the body of the persons using them. They affect several organs either directly or indirectly. It is important to be informed of the consequences of such drugs and other substances which affect our health. Some of the effects are short term whereas others are long term.

Title The Digestion of Starch using Amylase and the Effect of Chloride on the Activity of this Enzyme.
Aim of the experiment The object of this experiment is to measure the effect of the concentration of the enzyme, amylase, on the rate of degradation of the starch and the effect of the chloride ion concentration in the solvent on enzyme activity. Also, the other object is to discuss the comparison between starch and cellulose digestion.

Introduction Starch is a polysaccharide and it is the major storage carbohydrate in plants where it is found in the plastids. It is made up of two types of polymers. One is amylose, the smaller linear and helical polymer, made up of many glucose molecules joined by a1 4 glycosidic bonds. The other larger polymer is amylopectin. It has a branched structure with many a1 4 glycosidic bonds between glucose molecules and a1 6 glycosidic bonds at branch points. Pure starch is in the form of a white powder which is tasteless and has no odor. It is insoluble in cold water. (Brown, W. H.  Poon, T, 2005)

Cellulose is another polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants. It is made up of hundreds of linear chains of glucose molecules linked by b1 4 glycosidic bonds. Cellulose is a straight chain structure because the b1 4 linkage causes the glucose molecule to rotate 180 degrees. The many chains of cellulose are packed closely together by the hydrogen bonds existing between the hydroxyl groups of glucose molecules. These bonds contribute to the strength of the molecule. Cellulose is also odorless and tasteless and is insoluble in water (Young, Raymond ,1986).

Starch is a major component of the human diet. For the digestion of starch, the enzyme amylase is needed which is present in the saliva and is also present in pancreatic secretions. This amylase breaks down starch into maltose, glucose, and limit dextrin. This enzyme works at an optimum pH of 6.7-7.0. Like for other enzymes, the greater the concentration of amylase present, the faster the digestion of starch would be. Also, chloride ions are coenzymes for this reaction and act as the allosteric activators of this enzyme. This means that the digestion of starch by amylase will only work in the presence of chloride ions (Thomas J. A., Spradlin J. E., Dygert S,1971).

This experiment shows how the digestion of starch is carried out in the digestive tract by amylase and the conditions that are required for this reaction to take place.

Method to be inserted by the

Results 
This is a graph of the amount of the enzyme amylase in ml against the rate of reaction, taken as the reciprocal of the reaction time. Here, a linear relationship is seen and as the amount of the enzyme increases, so does the rate of the reaction.

This is a graph of the chloride ion concentration in mmoltube against the rate of the reaction, taken as the reciprocal of the reaction time. This shows that as the concentration of chloride ions present increases, the rate of the reaction also increases.

The ratio of the rates of digestion of these polysaccharides by salivary enzymes to bacterial enzymes can be approximately 101. This is because of the differences in the structures of starch and cellulose. Starch has just simple covalent bonds in its structure while cellulose has covalent as well as the stronger hydrogen bonds present to stabilize it. This is why it takes a longer time for bacterial enzymes to degrade cellulose compared to the time required to degrade starch.

Discussion
The relationship that should exist between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of an enzyme should be a linear relation. This means that as the concentration of the enzyme increases, more active sites are present for the reaction to take place on, and so the overall reaction proceeds at a faster rate. The graph that we obtained from this experiment justifies this hypothesis because in it, there is a similar linear relation between the concentration of amylase and the rate of the reaction.

After comparing the graph I obtained with two other students I realized that the enzyme that I used for my experiment was less active than the enzymes others used. It can be seen that when using the same amount of enzyme as the other students, the rate of my reaction is comparatively slower. For example, when using 5ml of enzyme solution of the same concentration, my reaction rate was around 0.25 and others got a rate of around 0.6 or more. That is greater than two times the difference in reaction rates. However, an error could have occurred if some of the enzymes supplied for the reaction were already denatured.

In my graph of chloride concentration against the reaction rate, the shape of the curve is somewhat like this. In the beginning there is a great increase in the rate of reaction for a small increase in chloride concentration. However, as the concentration is further increased, the rate does not increase as much and the curve later flattens out. This means that a Vmax is reached and no matter how much the concentration is increased, there will be no more increase in the rate (Thomas J. A., Spradlin J. E., Dygert S,1971). This is because all the binding sites on the enzyme for chloride ions get occupied and addition of more chloride ions will have no effect. For example, in my graph, there is a greater difference in the rate of reaction between the initial change in concentration from 0 to 0.2 ml than between the change in concentration between 1 and 2 ml.

AcidpH measuredH3OH3O theoreticalpH theoreticalerrorAve error0.1 M HOAc2.811.55E-0032.881.31E-0032.434.970.01 M HCl2.157.08E-00321.00E-0027.5Table 1. Instrumental error of the pH meter

Trial
mL NaOH used
pHAssuming salt  acidAssuming salt  acidpKaKaKa avepKaKaKa aveFor 0.1 M acetic acid127.34.664.622.39E-0052.41E-0054.662.19E-0052.24E-005226.54.644.612.43E-0054.642.29E-005For 0.1 M chloroacetic acid128.12.752.72.00E-0032.58E-0032.751.78E-0032.30E-003228.12.552.53.17E-0032.552.82E-003For 0.1 M dichloroacetic acid132.71.81.682.07E-0022.25E-0021.81.58E-0021.72E-002232.71.731.612.44E-0021.731.86E-002For 0.1 M trichloroacetic acid125.81.531.523.05E-0023.01E-0021.532.95E-0022.92E-002225.81.541.532.98E-0021.542.88E-002Table 2. Values for pKa and Ka of acetic acid and several other acids

Anilinium hydrochloride concentration, MpHKh0.152.182.94E-0044.40E-0020.082.75.36E-0052.66E-002Table 3. Values for Kh and  for anilinium chloride at different concentrations

DISCUSSION
In Table 2 are presented two values for the acid dissociation constant Ka of acetic acid and other acids at 22.5 C, using two assumptions. Assuming that the concentration of the salt is not equal to the concentration of the added acid utilizes the data on the amount of standard NaOH solution used to neutralize the acid, seeing as the volume of used NaOH is not equal to 25 mL. Assuming that the concentration of salt and added acid are equal disregards the volume of NaOH used. Of the two assumptions, the first assumption seems more likely the second assumption is included here for comparison. For both assumptions, the Henderson-Hasselbach equation pH  pKa  log saltacid was used to arrive at the value of pKa, which is the negative logarithm of the Ka value. From the literature (Atkins et. al 2004, p. A-8 to A-9), the value of Ka at 25 C for acetic acid, chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid are 1.75E-005, 1.36E-003, 3.31E-002 and 3, respectively. Comparing these values with the measured values in Table 2, it can be computed that the percent errors of the determination are, ignoring the difference in temperature 37.64, 89.95, 31.92 and 99, respectively, assuming salt  acid and 27.96, 68.99, 47.95 and 99.03, respectively, assuming salt  acid.

It will be noticed that the measured value of 3.01E-002 as Ka for trichloroacetic acid is far smaller than the literature value of 3. The high literature value of Ka indicates that trichloroacetic acid behaves as a strong acid, and so dissociation is virtually complete. The introduction portion of the manual implies that the procedure is based on weak-acid equilibria. But then equilibrium is essentially not established with trichloroacetic acid, as it is completely dissociated, so the method for determining Ka used here is not applicable to this acid.

The literature values indicate that Ka and thus acidity increases as the acid becomes more and more chlorinated. This can be explained in terms of the Lewis acidbase theory the presence of chloride draws electrons away from the acidic hydrogen side, making the hydrogen electron-deficient and thus more acidic. The more chlorinated the acid molecule is, the more-electron deficient and the more acidic the hydrogen is.
Buffer solutions are solutions containing an acidic or basic species and its conjugate in equilibrium with each other. Buffer solutions serve to maintain the pH of a solution at a constant value when small amounts of acid or base are added to it, or when it is diluted. (Skoog et.al 2004, p. 251)

The measured values of the hydrolysis constant Kh and fraction  of anilinium chloride dissociated are computed from the measured pH by taking note that   (Ka  C) and, from the expression for Ka, anilineanilinium    Ka  H3O. Combining these two expressions give the value of Ka for each concentration, and from the value of Ka, Kh and  can be computed. The measured value of Kh for 0.15 M anilinium chloride and 0.075 M anilinium chloride are 2.94E-004 and 5.36E-005, respectively, while for  the values are 4.40E-002 and 2.66E-002, respectively. From the literature value of Kw at 298 K, Kh is computed to be 2.51E-005. The percent difference of the theoretical values to the measured values are then computed to be 1071 and 113 respectively.

The values for Kh and  are expected to decrease with increasing concentration. At infinite dilution, weak electrolytes are said to be completely dissociated, but as the concentration increases, the presence of other electrolyte molecules drive the equilibrium in favor of the undissociated species. However, the opposite is observed in the results of this experiment. This student cannot find an explanation why this is so.

Using the literature value of Ka for acetic acid at 25 C and assuming that hydrochloric acid dissociates completely, the theoretical pH of 0.1 M acetic acid and 0.01 M hydrochloric acid are computed to be 2.88 and 2.00 respectively. The percent difference between the theoretical value and the measured value is then computed to be 2.43 and 7.5, respectively.

Practical CI  13
Calculation of the yield. (Based on Iodine)

Product yield
Weight of Iodine taken for the synthesis 2.0 grams  2.0126.92  0.01576 gm atom
Boat Weight 0.9314gWeight of Boat  product 3.0462 gProduct yield of Tin Iodide obtained is 3.0462g - 0.9314g  2.1148g
Iodine content of Tin Iodide
Assumption Second titer value is the accurate one.
Weight of SnI4 sample taken for analysis 0.25 gm
The sample is titrated with 0.025 molLit KIO3 solution. Titer value is 32 ml.
The reaction is IO3-  2I-  6H  3Cl-    3ICl  3H2O
IO3- is equivalent to 2 I
Atomic Weight of Iodine 126.92 Atomic Weight of Tin 118.70.

Molecular weight of Tin Iodide, SnI4  118.70  (126.92x 4)  626.38 gm

1000 ml of 1 mol IO3- solution  2 gm atoms of Iodine  2x 126.92  253.84 gm I2
32 ml of 0.025 mol of IO3-  (253.841000) x 0.025x 32.0  0.20307 gm I2
0.20307 gm I2 is present in 0.25 gram of the sample taken
Iodine content of the yield  (0.203070.25) x 2.1148  1.71781 gm
Iodine content in the product, SnI4  (1.71781 gm 2.1148 gm) x 100  81.228
The theoretical Iodine content of pure SnI4  (4x 126.92) 626.38  81.05
The experimental value is slightly more than the theoretical value. This may be due to the  ve
error induced by the fleeting end point.
The  yield obtained
Assuming the purity of Iodine as well as the product as 100, the  yield obtained is,
 Iodine content of SnI4 yield x 100      1.71781 gm x 100  85.89
Iodine taken                 2.0 gm

The balance Iodine would have been lost during the refluxing process, since Iodine is volatalisable.
Complementary work.

1 a. When water was added to the acetone solution of SnI4, the solution turned pale yellow.  The reason for this is SnI4, being an unstable compound, undergoes slight decomposition in aqueous solution. But the solubility of Iodine in water is very low say of the order of 0.04 parts  100 parts at 30 OC when equilibrium is reached, the colour of solution is pale yellow.

1 b. When saturated solution of KI was added to the acetone solution of SnI4, the solution turned dark purple.  The reason for this is SnI4, being an unstable compound, undergoes slight decomposition in aqueous solution. But the solubility of Iodine in KI solution is very high, the Iodine produced by decomposition dissolves in the KI solution and further amount of SnI4 decomposes to attain equilibrium, and so the colour is the characteristic purple colour of the Iodine in organic medium, say, acetone.

2. PbI4 can not be made in this manner. Akhmetov (1973, P. 405) states, the stability of binary compounds of Ge (IV), Sn (IV), Pb (IV)  decreases in the series.  Iodides  are known only for Ge (IV) and Sn (IV).

You are measuring a number of samples taken from a field where copper sulphate contamination is suspected. Answer the following questions to proceed with this investigation

First you would have to make up a stock solution What weight of copper sulphate would you need to make a 0.8M copper sulphate solution in a 500ml volumetric flask

To prepare a 500mL stock solution of 0.8M copper sulphate, weigh 63.84g anhydrous CuSO4, dissolve in enough amount of distilled water. Transfer solution to a 500mL and fill with distilled water up to mark and mix well.

Next you would make up the standards  How much stock solution would you have to put into 100ml volumetric flasks to make up the following solutions

Standard concentrationAmount of stock standard needed (mL)0.70087.500.60075.000.50062.500.40050.000.35043.750.20025.000.15018.750.0506.250.0020.25
 
You run the standards through a spectrophotometer to get a calibration curve.  You get the following results

Standard ConcentrationSpectrophotometer reading0.7000.07200.6000.06600.5000.05000.4000.04600.3500.02900.2000.01600.1500.01000.0500.00700.0020.0003

From these results generate a calibration curve in Excel.  What is the R2 value

R2 value  0.976

Using the equation obtained from the calibration curve work out the copper sulphate concentrations for the following samples

Sample numberSpectrophotometer readingConcentration of Copper sulphate (M)Average Concentration10.0420.4110.374020.0400.39330.0350.34640.0500.48650.0230.23460.0560.5420.489870.0600.57980.0460.44990.0410.402100.0490.477

Samples 1-5 were taken from a field that contained normal environmental levels of copper sulphate.  Samples 6-10 came from a field where copper sulphate contamination is suspected.

In no more than 100 words state whether you think that samples 6-10 come from a field contaminated with copper sulphate. You may use an appropriate statistical analysis if you wish.

Based on the determined average concentrations of copper sulphate in the samples, it can be observed that samples 6-10 have relatively higher amounts than samples 1-5. However, to confirm if the samples 6-10 are indeed contaminated with copper sulphate it should be compared to the threshold levels of copper sulphate in the soil.

Growing crops entails a lot of work, not to mention the time and money invested. However, farmers are often bridled with problems concerning their crops  plant pests and diseases that if unfortunately affect their crops, can decrease their production in varying degrees. The November 2009 World Summit on Food Security asserts that crop production provides about 84 percent of global food, feed, and fiber needs and virtually all human endeavors depend on food security. Crop pests, including diseases, insects and weeds, should be overcome to meet future needs. The same conference provided compelling data that insect pests are estimated to have caused the destruction of 15 percent of crops on a global scale (World Summit on Food Security 2009).

To counteract the effects of pest infestation and prevent crop losses from insects, growers resort to the use of insecticides. CropLife Foundation (2009) states in its March 2009 The Value of Insecticides in U.S. Crop Production Executive Summary that for every dollar spent on insecticides, U.S. growers gain 19 in increased production value. Such was the benefit of farmers from insecticides that variations of which exist that can kill a number of plant pests. One of such broad spectrum insecticide is chlorpyrifos.

Chlorpyrifos is a popular insecticide because it can kill a wide variety of insects cutworms, corn rootworms, cockroaches, grubs, flea beetles, flies, termites, fire ants, and lice (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1986). It is used to control insects that harm grain, cotton, field, fruit, nut and vegetable crops, and is used as well on lawns and ornamental plants. Chlorpyrifos (with chemical formula C9H11Cl3NO3PS) is colorless to white, crystalline solid with a mild, mercaptan-like odor. Chlorpyirifos belongs to the family of organophospates. Organophosphates are chemicals known to inhibit cholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that synthesizes acetylcholine, a chemical involved in the transmission of nerve impulses across nerve junctions of humans and animals.  Inhibiting acetylcholineterase will lead to an accumulation of acetylcholine which could cause rapid twitching of involuntary muscles, convulsions, paralysis and untimely death (Cremlyn 1991). Exposure to chlorpyrifos is mainly through skin contact and inhalation. Other means of getting it into your body is through eating fruits and vegetables which were used with chlorpyrifos-containing insecticides and drinking contaminated water.

From an ecological standpoint, chlorpyrifos can also harm several avian species and aquatic organisms. Birds are exposed to chlorpyrifos through the air and water, with different species having varying tolerance for this chemical. Its effect mainly is to lower egg production of mallards when exposed to 125 ppm of chlorpyrifos (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1989). Meanwhile aquatic organisms have low tolerance levels for chlorpyrifos  exposure to low concentrations already leads to cholinesterase inhibition, with the substance amassing in their tissues. Sea bottom dwellers, in particular, are in great danger of poisoning because of the persistence of chlorpyrifos as sediment (Schimmel et al 1983). For non-target species, the effect of chlorpyrifos is quite potent. Guenzi (1974) reported that all non-target species died after 0.01 to 0.02 kilogram per hectare (kgha) was applied to ricefields. It is also recommended that areas treated with chlorpyrifos be cordoned off from grazing animals or used within among honey-producing bees for extended periods of exposure again accumulated chlorpyrifos in their bodies (Thomson 1982).

The volume of pesticides used in the U.S. every year is 1.2 billion pounds but only 0.1 percent of it kills the pests it intended to kill. The remaining percentage (1.19 billion pounds to be exact) can either be washed off the plant and seep into the soil, contaminate lakes and rivers, or volatilize into the air (Pimentel 1995). According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), chlorpyrifos has been widely used for 30 years and that annual application ranges from 20 to 24 million tons annually.

In 1999, a reassessment of pesticides was done by the Tolerance Reassessment Advisory Committee to ascertain whether their existing EPA registrations comply with the safety standards called for by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 the following year, the EPA sought the ban of chlorpyrifos use in gardens and homes as pesticide. This was due to the numerous reports about the adverse effects of chlorpyrifos use in environments where children are present. Developmental delays were seen in children and were linked to their exposure to chlorpyrifos-containing pesticides (Lovasi et al. 2010). However, the use of chlorpyrifos, marketed under the brand name Dursban, is still being used for agricultural purposes to date though restrictions were enforced reductions in application risks were to be implemented, as well as the use of protective gear and clothing when possible contact with the chemical is likely. From the U.S. EPA website (2008), the following risk mitigation measure was deemed necessary for agricultural workers
PPE (personal protective equipment) consisting of double layers, chemical resistant gloves, chemical resistant shoes plus socks, chemical resistant headgear for overhead exposure, chemical resistant apron when cleaning and mixing or loading and a dustmist respirator are required for the following scenarios mixingloading liquids for groundboom and airblast application, loading granulars for ground application, tractor drawn granular spreader, and low pressure handwand.

While for foreseen ecological risks, the manufacturers of chlorpyrifos-containing pesticides entered in an agreement with U.S. EPA (2008) to label amendments which include the use of buffer zones to protect water quality, fish and wildlife, reductions in application rates, number of applications per season, seasonal maximum amounts applied, and increases in the minimum intervals for retreatment.

On a personal level, the continued use of chlorpyrifos might be due to the sustained support of people of products grown with the use of such pesticides. In mitigating this environmental chemical threat, I suggest that we go organic. That we patronize only produce grown organically. This way, the demand for products exposed to pesticides will decline and farmers will shift to the use of other alternative methods of combating pests. Theres the use of other insects that prey on the supposed pests (Charlet 2002). The prey-predator relationship that exists in nature is a viable means to curb the population of the pests present in the crops.
I also vouch for the full ban of chlorpyrifos. Whats the use of banning chlorpyrifos in homes if it is still used in the fields Chlorpyrifos can stay on the surface for 10-14 days before it is lost through volatilization (Thomson 1982). What if the crop was harvested, brought to the market, bought then consumed within that period Then the person has actually ingested some amount of chlorpyrifos.

I would also like to urge the scientific community to continue studying and publishing the effects of chlorpyrifos in the body, as well as in animals and the environment. That way, evidences will mount referring to the hazards it imposes and further convince people of the risks they face when they still patronize or tolerate the use of chlorpyrifos in the food they eat.

Lastly, through this paper, I would like to inform and warn the public about pesticides in general, and chlorpyrifos in particular.

Ecstasy or MDMA is considered as one of the most abused street drug today. In fact, this drug is especially popular to young people as more and more users get addicted to it. One of the reasons for its popularity is its effects to the human body. Studies show that people are hooked to this drug because it indices a sense of euphoric feeling that eliminates depression or anxiety. Thus, it has earned its street name ecstasy.

MDMA was first developed on 1912 by Anton Kollisch, a chemist of Merck. It was originally intended to stop any abnormal bleeding. Its research and development however, came to a sudden halt and was largely forgotten by the company. By the advent of the 70s, MDMA started to gain popularity as a street drug after its counterpart drug, MDA, was declared illegal in the United States (Doweiko 188).

By 1980s this drug rose to fame under the name of Adam. It became the talk of the town in nightclubs under the street name of Adam. From there, the drug started to spread in major cities and then eventually in the mainstream society. As it gained more popularity, people changed its name and gave it a moniker ecstasy. In Europe, ecstasy became an integral part of the rave culture as well as other psychedelic music influenced sub-culture. This drug was easily accepted among young people in high schools and universities.

Because of the alarming rise of users, the US government declared it as an illicit drug. Subsequently, other countries began to criminalize this drug. Medical practitioners also stopped the use of this drug for therapeutic purposes. However, some therapists would still prescribe this drug illegally (Doweiko 188).

The controversy that surrounds MDMA comes from Safrole, colorless oil extracted from the plant sassafras. Safrole is then converted to MDMA through different synthetic intermediate methods. One methods involves the manufacturer to isomerizes safrole through a process referred to as the Wacker process which oxidizes the element into MDP2P or 3,4-methylenedioxy phenyl 2 propane. Once this is produced, it is then further processed to form MDMA or ecstasy as a product. Apart fro this method, some manufacturers would mix HBr to safrole. The combination of these two materials would cause a reaction which then causes the effects of the drug (Karch 213).

MDMA is typically produced either in the form of a capsule or tablet. Some manufacturers would even create colorful tablets with small drawings of messages on it in order to appeal to its young market. Once taken in, MDMA would require around 1.5 to 3 hours before it completely mixes in with the blood stream. It would then slowly metabolize and then excreted in varying levels. It fist affects the neurochemical system as it causes the body to release various hormones such as oxytocin, dehydroepiandrosterone or DHEA, prolactin, and ACTH among many others. Similarly, it promotes the release of serotonin which creates a feeling of happiness and euphoria. This feeling of euphoria includes mentally and physically. Users would often enjoy the tingly sensation whenever someone touches their skin. All tactile sensation such as touching, kissing, hugging, and sex all feel better with the consumption of MDMA (Coombs and Howatt 14).
Likewise, this drug gives a generally feeling of contentedness as it reduces negative emotions such as fear, paranoia, and anxiety. Anger and irritability is also decreased with the intake of this drug. Users also enjoy communicating with other people. Studies show that there is an increased of the felling of being close to other people. The effect of the drug often lasts for up to several days (Karch 213).

Despite of the euphoric sensation that this drug brings, medical researches show that it also has negative side effects. The adverse effects include hyponatremia which is a result of low blood sodium level. This drug also causes the body to suffer from hyperthermia or a condition wherein the body temperature rises too high which then stops the major organs from functioning. Other adverse effects of ecstasy include trismus or jaw clenching as well as teeth grinding or bruxism. Some users report allergic reactions to the drug (Karch 213).

 Sugar is a naturally occurring compound that is synthesized in plants and even in humans. The word sugar is a general term for a variety of chemically known sugar variants. These variants are usually in the form of sucrose, lactose and fructose (Matthews et al. 1996). Today, our society deals a lot with sugar especially regarding food and our diet. In recent years, there has been a continuing revolution in developing sugar alternatives or sweeteners that will replace sugar as the basic sweetening agent in our food. These substances are currently termed as sugars substitutes. The reason behind this switch from traditional sugar to sweeteners is that there are increasing threats from the consumption of sugars to people with diseases like diabetes, hypertension and other complications.

In chemical terms, sugars relate to sucrose. It is classified as a disaccharide which means that is a carbohydrate that is formed after a condensation reaction of two monosacharrides (Levy 2006). The main characteristic of sucrose sugars is that it is easily dissolved in water. An important characteristic of the sucrose sugars is its sweetness. This level of sweetness is the reason why it is being used as a table sugar in most households and also in industrial factories. On the other hand, chemically speaking, sugar refers to either a mono or disaccharide. These sugars are classified as carbohydrates that mix up with water. There are various differences between these sugars groups. One would be their composition. Monosacharrides are the basic forms of these sugars and they are called simple sugars. However, further classifications like poly and disaccharides refer to structures of sugars that already contain stronger bonds between molecules.

The role of sugars in our body is very broad. Similar to plants, we rely on sugars for growth and development. This is because sugars contain heaps of stored energy that can be used in respiration in order to convert it to other forms of energy. Respiration refers to the biological process that converts reduced organic compounds in our body like sugars or in plants glucose into other forms of energy (Levy 2006). This conversion yields chemical energy in the form of ATP, while a considerable amount is lost in the form of heat. Technically, all types of sugars whether it is sucrose or lactose or maltose of fructose and also other sub-types can be reduced and broken down into simpler substances to be used and absorbed by our body (Matthews et al. 1996).  These sugars are all made up of glucose. They only differ in the molecular bonds that exist between molecules but overall they are similar in structures. These structures are tweaked in order to produce other sugar by products. These structures are defined by the number of rings and carbons that constitute the molecular structure. There are currently four classifications of these structures and they are Tetrose, Pentose, Hexose, and Heptose. These names suggest how many carbon structures are present per molecules Tetrose is to four, Pentose is to five, Hexose is to six and Heptose is to seven.
                           
Tetrose                       Pentose                 Hexose                 Heptose

Taking into account the structures and chemical characteristics of traditional sugars, the basic definition of a sugar substitute will be that of an artificial food substance that copies the intrinsic quality of sugar which is its sweetness. Most of the sugars substitute today is artificial however there are some which are natural. These sugar substitutes achieve their goal of copying the sweetness of the traditional sugar by magnifying its sweetness over a hundred times. This means that traditional sugar can now be replaced by a sugar substitute at a lesser amount because the degree of sweetness will also be the same.

An example of both a famous and controversial sugar substitute is Aspartame. Aspartame, similar to sugar is structured with bonds and linkages. It uses amino acid bases and other variants to achieve its form which results to a degree of sweetness that is 200x that of a sugar. Similar to sugar, aspartame and other sugar substitutes can be mixed and dissolved in water (Bugawan 1995).  This results to a breaking down or reduction of its natural components which includes aspartic acid, phenylalanine and methanol. These components as compared to the traditional sugar components are very different.

Aspartame is derived from the combination of aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Its initial structure is close to carbohydrates however it is defined as an amino acid base. Glucose, the basic unit of a sugar is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which are essentially a carbohydrate. Sugar substitutes such as Aspartame are composed of esters of amino acids and additionally substance such as phenylalanine. Taking into account this structure alone it is indeed obvious that sugars rely on carbohydrate molecules while artificial sweeteners rely on amino acids as a structural part of the molecule (Takwanain 1995).

Another main difference between sugar and sugar substitutes would be the level of energy that can be obtained from them. Sugars usually contain high levels of energy while sugar substitutes contain low levels of energy (Bugawan 1995). However, there is a controversy with sugar substitutes as it has been proven that sugar substitutes can lead to an increased body weight. This is explained by simply having a sugar rush in our body which triggers that natural hormone insulin to affect the person. This results to a need to have some sweet or sugary source. Utilizing a sugar substitute means that the requirement of the body and insulin will not be met. This leads to another surge which makes a person consume more and more sugar resources.

Aside from Aspartame there are about a hundred plus more of sugar substitutes. These have similar chemical structures however tweaks can be found. Overall, one of the main differences between the traditional sugar and a sugar substitute would be the base structures. Sugars come from organic carbohydrate molecules while sugar substitutes come from a variety of amino acid structures, semi-carboxylate groups and others.

According to Terry (2007) the statistics released by the world Health Organization (2002) show that almost one third of all male adults in the worlds population are smokers. Diseases related to tobacco smoking kill at least one in 10 adults in the world today which could be translated to about four million deaths due to such illnesses. The statistics also illustrate that if the current trend goes on as it is now the by 2030 smoking will be killing one in every six people in the world. The issue of smoking is on the rise in most developing countries in contrast with the developed countries where smoking is on the decline. smoking rates among the Americans  has reduced by nearly half from mid 1960s to the middle of the 1990s where it fell by 23 percent of adults in 1997.However in the developing countries consumption of tobacco is rising at a rate of 3.4 percent per year. The reports also established that the tobacco market is under control of a few corporations which are the British, American as well as the Japanese multinational corporations. (Terry, 2007)

Among the young people who are of ages 13-15 one in every five of them is a tobacco smoker. This interprets to about 80,000 children who smoke everyday with the continent of Asia having the most of young smokers in the world. In review study done by WHO most of these young smokers are influenced by the advertisement of tobacco in the media. (Harold, 2001. pg 155)

The smoking of tobacco is the only largest cause of diseases which is preventable as well as cause of premature deaths. It is the primary cause of heart disease, stroke as well as chronic lung diseases. It contributes heavily to the cancer of the pancreas, kidneys and the cancer of the cervix. The tobacco smoke consists of more than 4,000 toxic and carcinogenic chemicals which are very harmful to the human body. The survey by the World Health Organization has discovered that 99 percent of women in Britain dont know the link between cigarette smoking and the cervical cancer while another research study show that about 60 percent of adults in China dont know that tobacco smoking can cause the cancer of the lungs while about 96 percent of them did not understand that it can cause a heart disease. It has been established by WHO that of all the deaths from heart disease a quarter and almost three quarters of chronic bronchitis are smoking linked to smoking of tobacco.  These diseases related to smoking cost the government of the U.S at least 150 billion every year in its revenue. (Watson  Witten, 2001, Pg 17).

Health Effects
According to the World Health Report (2002), thousands of people all over the world die owing to disease caused by cigarette smoking. The most dangerous disease which tobacco smoking contributes significantly is Cancer. (I.e. gastric cancer, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, cervical cancer, along with pancreatic cancer). Studies show that in every cigarette there is a mixture of carbon dioxide and nicotine which usually increases the heart rate of beating and the blood pressure which later constraints the heart as well as the blood vessels. This later develops to heart attacks or strokes where by it slows the blood flow thereby cutting off the flow of oxygen to the hands and the feet. Sometimes tobacco smokers usually end up having their limbs amputated. The carbon monoxide found in cigarettes usually make a person lose oxygen in the brains the muscles as well as the body tissue which generates to the body  and mostly the heart to work harder to sustain the persons life. After a while the paths used to pass air to the body swell up thus letting in a very small amount of air in the lungs.

This clearly shows that tobacco smoking is essentially a slow way towards death as deadly diseases such as the heart disease and strokes are unavoidable. There is also the cause of a disease known as the Emphysema which is a disease that rots the lungs of an individual in gradual and slow manner. Those who suffer this disease regularly get the bronchitis in a regular manner and at the end suffer lung and heart failures. (Gordon  Eric, 2010, pg 391)

When pregnant women engage in the habit of cigarette smoking they increase the risks of having a child with a low weight and spontaneous abortion. Thus it is important to note that tobacco smoking will eventually have negative effects in almost every organ in the body. The effects which would be named as short term are frequent respiratory illnesses like pneumonia, bronchitis colds and coughs. Children and adults exposed to smoke have a higher rate of asthma, ear infection as well as lower respiratory infections
The long term effects are the causes of COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease which is a serious damage of the lungs. (Joycelyn, 2007)

There are additional health risks to women who engage to the habit of smoking in that it increases danger of having the rheumatoid arthritis as well as having a loss of bone density  and thus causing increase of fractures in the  hip and spine for the women in postmenopausal period.

Environmental factors.
According to the National Research Council (U.S.) Committee (1986), it is a fact that the tobacco business is still thriving and governments in the world are still making enormous profits from the manufacture of tobacco. For example 70 of the price of a pack of cigarettes is the amount of tax which the Australian government gets from its industries. Studies show that its a great source of revenue but also destroys the environment of a country. The Health Department of Australia gives surprising statistics of how tobacco negatively affects the environment. It concludes
Almost 600 million of forest trees are destroyed so as to provide wood for drying tobacco every year.
Countries which dont use wood mostly use coal for drying.

In a country like Tanzania in East Africa more than 25 pounds is used to dry just one pound of tobacco.
A modern industry use up to 3.7 miles of paper every hour for production and packaging of cigarettes.
The tobacco plants use the most nutrients more than all other kinds of plants which eventually degrade the soil productivity.

Massive quantities of fertilizers, herbicides as well as pesticides are used to grow the tobacco crops.
All of these activities usually harm the environment in which we live in and thus at the end affect our daily living. The butts in the cigarettes also affect our environment in that the residue released from them release toxins into the environment and trillions of such butts are thrown away every year. Some studies have concluded that major causes of forest fires in the United States are the discarded cigarettes which sometimes cause very fatal fires. More than a thousand people in America lose their lives annually due to fires related to tobacco (Deanna, 2007 pg 177)

Some pollution in water and land is due to smoking because the chemicals are not confined to the air and the human body alone. Millions of cigarettes butts are thrown and left I the ground and most of them end up in lakes and rivers swept by floods or wind. The fishes and other animals that live in water end up eating these butts which results to death of the water bodies. Those that are left on land usually take long to decompose and it is roughly takes 25 years. This means the chemicals end up being absorbed into the soil polluting the productivity of the soil as well as the other plants. These butts are still the ones which cause fires during the dry periods of the year. (Deanna, 2007 pg 177).

The National Research Council (U.S.) Committee (1986), states that the main impact witnessed in the environment is because of the production of tobacco. This is because the land in which tobacco crops are cultivated could be used for a better reason which is to grow food crops for the developing countries which struggle with shortage of food. Further more a lot of trees are needed to be able to help in the production as well as in packaging of cigarettes. Chemicals that affect the environment have to be used to keep the health of these plants.

This means that the industries need to innovate a more advanced technology so as to assist in decreasing the degradation that we witness today of our environment. If not then the most efficient way is to stop the purchase of such a harmful product both to our health and our environment as well. It may be a bit tough to stop smoking but in long term and for our health and the environment it is of great importance.

Prevention
Education programs.According to Leonard  Steven (2002), educating the society on tobacco smoking behaviors has had some positive effects on the prevention measures and attitudes which people have about tobacco mostly the young smokers. Programs that center mostly on influences by the media, peer pressure as well as the family seem to be the most effective when integrated by the health education program by the community. There are various strategies offered by the National Cancer Institute and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) they consist of

Sensitizing the young people, who are vulnerable to smoking and are the great percentage of smokers in the society today with efforts which include the involvement of parents, the mass media and other organizations in the community. This should also include targeting the individual knowledge, social environment, attitudes, and behaviors for change. Such interventions by the community are not enough to bring a decline which is substantive in youth smoking. There is a great importance to combine such efforts with media interventions, the formation of policies as well as the implementation, strong advocacy as well as high taxation for tobacco products. This can generally be very effective.

Restrictions Youth Access There should also be more support in the types of controls put in place to restrict the access of tobacco products. There has been major growth of activities that lead to youth smoking and they should be under restriction. Such interventions of access to tobacco would generally lead to a reduction in illegal sales of tobacco underage students. This may reduce the use of tobacco by the youth in the community. (Joycelyn, 1997)

Tobacco Taxes
If the prices of cigarettes were high enough they would discourage young people from smoking. Such small increase that the government does is not a good deterrent to cub this behavior which has so many negative impacts in the society today. It may not literally reduce the phenomenon but it may be a better option that the increase of taxes in small potions. (Leonard  Steven 2002 pg 34)

Anti-Tobacco Advertising
There should be a good strategy for a media counter advertising for the tobacco advertisements. In the U.S the governments is using numerous models in their anti tobacco advertising. For instance in Arizona offers the message to the youth that smoking is neither healthy nor cool to counter the adverts from the tobacco manufacturing companies while in Massachusetts focuses on the health effects caused by tobacco smoking a s way of counter advertise in the media. It is still not well established that such awareness will lead to the reduction and the rate of tobacco smoking by the young people. (Leonard  Steven 2002 pg 38)

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2004) In the year 2010 the consumption rate of tobacco in the developed world will be about 29 percent while it will be 71 in the developing countries This is because the demand for tobacco is declining in the developed world which will be 2.05 million tonnes from 2.23million tonnes a 10 lower than the consumed one in 1998.
Furthermore, in the developed countries there has been a strong awareness on how the smoking of tobacco is damaging to ones health in conjunction with the anti-smoking measures laid down by the government which include the prohibition of advertising and increased taxation, how their has been strong negative effect on consumption of tobacco products as well as strengthen anti-smoking campaigns,

Nevertheless more tobacco will be taken to developing countries where it consumptions is anticipated to grow to 5.09 million tonnes by the end of 2010.This is from 4.2 million consumed in 1999.An annul rate of growth of 1.7 between 1998 an 2010 This high demand from developing countries is the one that drives the tobacco economy and this means that to reduce the use of tobacco we should rather focus on demand than the supply in our policy making.

It is also essential to note that Tobacco and poverty are highly related. Numerous studies have proved that in the poorest of homes and usual in countries where there is low income more than 10 percent of the expenditure in the home is on tobacco. This means that there is very little money spent on basic necessities like food, healthcare and education. It then leads to severe malnutrition lack of good health care as well as having premature deaths in the community. It is also a great contributor in the level of illiteracy in a society since most of the money that could have been spent in education the children is all spent on the purchase of tobacco. Unfortunately the role of tobacco in enhancing poverty in the society has always been ignored by many researchers.