Chemistry

The United States of America was not justified to drop nuclear bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At the end of the Second World War, very few people questioned President Harry Trumans decision to order nuclear attack on the two Japanese towns. The obvious reasoning was that the bombings helped bring the bloody and destructive war to a speedier conclusion, but little attention was paid to the over 100000 lives that were lost due to the use of a weapon so little was known about and the millions more who have or are still suffering from the consequences of the bombings (Snowden).

    Six decades later, revising historical perceptions most people would call common yields conclusions that there must have been better alternatives to end the confrontation without such a destructive attack. First of all, the US did not a warning to the Japanese to surrender before executing a nuclear attack (Snowden). Such a technology like nuclear language deserved to be treated with caution before it could be unleashed as terror to humanity. By executing the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, the United States exhibited recklessness and proved to the world that it would not hesitate to use chemical weapons of mass destruction to exert its supremacy over the entire world.

    The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings were devastatingly destructive. Both towns were destroyed and so many lives were lost instantly. The radiation from the explosions caused much more death and suffering for a prolonged period of time as it caused illnesses and genetic mutations (Snowden). Truman largely dropped the bombs for personal reasons. He was mainly revenging the destruction of Pearl Harbor and to account for the public funds that were used to create the bombs.


Part II
Recent upsurge of terrorist activities and an increasing number of failed and rogue states makes another nuclear attack very likely. Nuclear technology has proliferated and gotten in the wrong hands (Calabresi). Furthermore, greed has seen the illegal trade in radioactive materials flourish, involving those in charge of governmental and nuclear research facilities and resources.

    North Korea and the Islamic Republic of Iran are making the nuclear threat more real as they continue enriching Uranium and Plutonium (Coughlin). Just last year, North Korea tested a nuclear weapon that specialists claimed had an equal or more power than the Hiroshima bomb. The scary bit is that the nation has continued to brave increased isolation from the international community to keep its military juggernaut rolling. Even though the Government of North Korea continually maintains that its nuclear arsenal is only meant to deter nuclear attacks on it, it is becoming clear that it could hit its enemies any time (Coughlin).

    The other serious threat is posed by the Islamic Republic of Iran. Irans situation is worsened by the fact that its administration is believed to be in touch with Islamic fundamentalists who have orchestrated a series of attacks in recent history, including September 11th, embassy bombings in East Africa and the London terror attacks (Calabresi). The level and spirit of Islamic militancy in the Middle East, backed by the acquisition of such a powerful weapon like the nuclear bomb, increases the possibility of nuclear attacks. Changing technologies and increased globalization have promoted the proliferation of nuclear material and technology, and bearing in mind the animosity between terrorist groups and nations against the US, the UK and Israel, these nations are most at risk of suffering a nuclear attack (Calabresi).

Chromatography is the separation of mixture by distributing its components between mobile and stationary phase over time .It is use to determine characteristic composition of sample. Whereas Analgesic is drugs or medicines given to reduce pain without resulting in loss of consciousness. It is sometimes referred to as pain killer medications. Examples of analgesic drugs include Aspirin, ibuprofen. Analgesics act on body by acting on the central nervous system. In this chromatography is utilized to find the components of analgesics.

In this experiment modern liquid Chromatographic techniques are applied to separate the components of analgesic tablets like Aspirin, Caffeine and Paracetamol and Salicylic acid.

HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) is a form of Column Chromatography, which is used to separate, identify and quantify compounds on the basis of their idiosyncratic polarities and interaction with columns stationary phase, HPLC utilizes various stationary phase like hydrophobic saturated carbon chains, a pump that moves the mobile phase and analyte through the column, and a detector that provides a characteristic retention time for the analyte. The detector may also provide characteristic information. Analyte retention time varies depending on the strength of its interactions with the stationary phase, the ratiocomposition of solvent used, and the flow rate of the mobile phase.

Experiment Setup and Procedure
1. In this experiment HPLC separation takes place using ion suppression in the reverse phase mode ODS( Octadecylsilance, C18) column.C18 is used in this experiment because C18 will help in increasing the  retention time because it gives non-polarity and is more hydrophobic than other alkyl group all these properties of C18 helps in the separation.

2. To make the Internal Standard Solution dissolve 0.3gms Salicylic acid in 25ml of HPLC methanol in a conical flask and add 25ml distilled water and mix well. (Internal standards standards are used because they are the substance used as reference in quantitative analysis, the internal standard is first mixed with standard solution, later it is added to the unknown and the ratio of peak heights of internal standard and analyte is used for quantitative analysis).

3. Label three 100ml volumetric flasks no s 1, 2, 3. To each flask add the volumes of the stocks prepared and internal standard as indicated in the table below.


          Flask(1)         Flask(2)           Flask(3)Volume of Uracil                  1                   1                   1Volume of Aspirin                  6                   3                    9Volume of Caffeine                 3                   6                    9Volume of Paracetamol                 9                   6                    3Volume of Internal Std.                 3                   3                    3


Uracil
4. To make mobile phase mixture take 400ml of MeOH H2O by mixing 160ml HPLC methanol with 240 ml of 1 acetic acid.
5. To make sample solution weigh out 60 mg of powdered sample, transfer it quantitatively to a     100 ml volumetric flask using a maximum of 20 ml of HPLC methanol. Then add to it 3 ml of internal standard solution and make up to the mark with distilled water.

Materials Required
                                               Pump                           0.1mlmin flow rate
                                               Spectrophotometer      UV detector set at 280 nm
                                               Column                        15cm, 5um, reverse phase C18 column
                                               Mobile Phase               initially as above

Result and Discussion
Resolution of Peak  tr  Wavelength (average)

                       Sample 1 Peak 23 Resolution0.740.164.625
                       Sample 1 Peak 23Resolution 0.740.154.93
                        Sample 2 Peak 23Resolution0.650.154.33
                        Sample 2 Peak 23Resolution0.620.163.875
                        Sample 3 Peak 23Resolution0.650.173.823
                        Sample 3 Peak 23Resolution0.640.173.764
The most important way of determining the operational parameters in chromatography is through resolution. Hence it is very necessary to determine the resolution between two consecutive peaks. The resolution between peaks 2 and 3 is nearly same which means their compositions are nearly same. The brand broadening is a major factor that influences the efficiency and resolution of chromatographic separations.
Plate height HLN
 Plate number
The number of theoretical plates in a given column is known as plate number. It is the measure of capacity of column for restraining peak depression.
Sample 1N5.54x9.42.04411183.37
Sample 1N5.54x9.48.04   1312.98
Sample 2N5.54x8.88.04   1229.88
Sample 2N5.54x8.52.04841180.02
Sample 3N5.54x8.82.0576977.2
Sample 3N5.54x8.82.0576977.2
Plate height H0.251143.44.0002186

Optimal value flow rate is very important for HPLC column of different diameters. Flow rate directly impacts HPLC system pressure. Factors that effect optimal value flow rate are column dimensions, stationary phase particle, size, temperature.
To obtain optimal separations, sharp, symmetrical chromatographic peaks must be obatained.this means that Band broadening must be limited. It is also beneficial to measure the efficiency of the column.
                      Internal diameter                       Standard flow rate                                   4.6                                   1000                                   2.1                                     200                                   1.0                                       50                                   0.30                                       4                                   0.15                                       1
                                                                   Conclusion
200mg of Aspirin, 50 mg of caffeine and 75mg of Paracetamol was observed.
The experiment as successfully performed and the peaks were successfully observed. Hence by this method highest performance was obtained. Thus this method shows very good reproducibility.

Nicotine is an alkaloid that is produced by the tobacco plant to protect it from destruction by animals. Nicotine is also produced by 66 other plant species, all of which are members of the nightshade family. Regarding its chemical properties, nicotine is a basic, water-miscible and lipophilic compound which dissolves readily in basic solutions. Originally, the home of nicotine was in the Americas. Tobacco was first introduced to Europe in the early 16th century by Fernando Cortes. Nicotine was named after Jean Nicot, a French diplomat who first sent tobacco to France in 1560 and popularized the substance as an effective remedy for the treatment of headaches (Leete, 1969).

Social acceptance of cigarette smoking
Cigarette smoking is becoming less and less accepted socially. The declining social acceptance of nicotine is manifested by the strict anti-smoking rules in government offices and public spaces which are now enforced in many countries worldwide. Additionally, some firms have employment practices that discriminate against smokers because smokers can increase insurance costs forcing the employers to pay higher premiums, they get sick more often and may cause more damage in the workplace due to the odors and burns associated with smoking. Cigarette smoking is also prohibited in many social events such as sports and not many people like it when others smoke inside their homes and they usually take issue with smokers. To further underline the decline in the social acceptance of cigarette smoking, marriage prospects of smokers are comparatively less promising and are often limited to other smokers (ACS, 2010).

Addictive Properties of Nicotine
When taken in small doses, nicotine is a stimulant which enhances the alertness, activity and memory of people. When used frequently, it induces a physical dependence on the users. According to the US Surgeon General report (1988), the addictive properties of nicotine resemble those of heroin and cocaine. Nicotine crosses the blood brain barrier and is quickly distributed in the brain where it causes its pleasurable effects. These effects do not last for long but they wear off after a short time. This causes the smoker to yearn for more of the pleasurable effect hence to smoke more cigarettes so as to maintain the levels of nicotine. With the continued smoking, the nicotine receptors become up-regulated as a result of desensitization and elevated levels of nicotine in the brain (George  OMalley, 2004 Benowitz, 1999 Stoleman  Jarvis, 1995).

Scientific evidence suggests that the addictive properties of nicotine derive from the observation that it induces the release of dopamine, a chemical that causes pleasure. It is also addictive as it can act as a stimulant (DOH, 1998 USDHHS, 2000 RCP, 2000 Stoleman  Jarvis, 1995).

Nicotine in the Cigarette Smoke
When inhaled, nicotine is first absorbed by the alveoli into the pulmonary circulation. It then gets into the systemic circulation and is quickly distributed in the body. When taken in by mouth, nicotine is absorbed through the buccal cavity and from here it gets into the small intestine. From the small intestine, it is absorbed into the systemic circulation and once it reaches the liver, it undergoes the hepatic first pass effect where it is broken down by the liver. The total bioavailability of nicotine when absorbed through the buccal cavity is 30-40.

Nicotine crosses the blood brain barrier and gets distributed in the brain within 11 seconds of its inhalation (Benowitz, 1999). Once here, it attaches to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing the release of norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine. Nicotine is an agonist of acetylcholine it binds on the receptors and prevents the attachment of acetylcholine while mimicking its actions. Two types of nicotinic receptors have been described. These are central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) receptors. The receptors are ligand-gated (Benowitz, 1999 George  OMalley, 2004).

Nicotine is metabolized in the kidneys, liver and lungs. Excretion by the kidney is dependent on the pH and flow and is responsible for between 5 and 10 of the total excretion. Elimination follows the first order kinetics and generally, nicotine has a half life of 2 hours although this differs from person to person. The compound is degraded by the p450 cytochromes and the aldehyde oxidase enzymes (figure 1). A large percentage (70) of nicotine is converted to cotinine, 4 to nicotine-N-oxide and 17 to nornicotine and nicotine isomethonium ion. Cotinine has a half life of 16 hours and 17 of cotinine is excreted in that form via the renal system. The remaining 83 is further metabolized to cotinine-N-oxide or to trans-2-hydrocortinine (Giddings, n.d Anon, 2007. This is depicted in figure 1 below.
Adverse Health Effects of Smoking

Smoking has been associated with many adverse health effects. Lung cancer is perhaps the best known disease thats associated with cigarette smoking. Smoking is also a risk factor for many other types of cancers such as cancers of the kidney, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, larynx and pharynx. Cancers aside, smoking is also associated with pneumonia. According to the American Society of Cancer (ACS, 2010), people who smoke are many times likely to contract chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD (USDHHS, 1998 DOH, 1998).

Statistics also show that people who smoke are 2 times more prone to heart attacks than those who dont smoke. Smoking also causes the blood vessels which supply the limbs to constrict leading to peripheral vascular disease. It also has the same effect on carotid arteries and smokers are more prone to erectile dysfunction (USDHHS, 1998 DOH, 1998).

Blindness is yet another condition which has been associated with cigarette smoking. According to the American Society of Cancer (ACS, 2010), smoking leads to macular degeneration which is a leading cause of blindness in the aged. Smoking is also associated with higher mortality rates. According to the American Society for Cancer (2010), men who smoke lose over 13 years of life while women who smoke live 14.5 years shorter than their counterparts who dont smoke. More than 50 of smokers end up dying from a disease that is related to smoking. Estimates also indicate that 20 of all deaths in the U.S are related to smoking (CDC, 2000 USDHHS, 1998 DOH, 1998).

Besides having adverse effects on the health of smokers, smoking can also harm the health of non-smokers who get into contact with the cigarette smoke. This is referred to as second-hand or passive smoking. As reported by the American Cancer Society (2010), smoking is associated with the deaths of thousands of people who are otherwise healthy but get exposed to second-hand smoke. The deaths are mainly due to lung cancer and heart diseases that are caused by smoking. Respiratory distress, GIT distress, emesis, hypothermia, seizures and hypertension are the other untoward effects associated with nicotine (USDHHS, 1998 DOH, 1998).

In women, smoking exerts many adverse and long term effects on their health and that of their babies. Studies show that women who smoke and are aged more than 35 years are more prone to contracting deep vein thrombosis (DVT), heart attack and stroke. Women who smoke are also more prone to miscarriages and on average they give birth to children who are underweight. This is not good because underweight children are likelier to experience difficulties in learning than those children who are born with a normal weight. Additionally, underweight children usually have more physical problems (USDHHS, 1998 DOH, 1998).

Children who are born by mothers who smoke also have higher chances of contracting asthma than those born by non-smoking mothers. Additionally, studies have shown a correlation between mothers who smoke and the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). As reported by the American Society of Cancer (2010), children who are born and brought up in homes where others smoke usually experience more colds, breathing difficulties, and ear infections (USDHHS, 1998, DOH, 1998).

Smoking Cessation Products
A number of products have been developed to help smokers stop the habit. Nicotine replacement products refer to a group of compounds that have nicotine as the active ingredient. However, they do not contain the other harmful substances that are normally found in cigarette smoke. These products allow the smokers to take in nicotine in much fewer quantities in place of cigarettes. With time, the quantities of nicotine taken reduce until they are weaned off nicotine completely. When they start taking these products, they are able to quit using cigarettes. This is because the replacement products provide a significantly slower uptake of nicotine than do the cigarettes. The nicotine replacement products come in several different forms such as nicotine gum, nicotine lozenges, nicotine inhaler, transdermal patches and nicotine nasal spray. Whereas the nicotine gum is an over the counter product that can be bought without a doctors prescription, nasal sprays and inhalers are prescription only medicaments (Benowitz, 1999 George  OMalley, 2004).

Nicotine patches are self-adhesive strips that are stuck on the skin by users to release small quantities of nicotine into the systemic circulation. Side effects of the patches are local skin irritation and insomnia. Lozenges are candies that dissolve in the mouth and are absorbed into the circulation through the buccal cavity. Common side effects of lozenges are stomach upsets and throat irritation, insomnia and sore gums. Nasal sprays have nicotine aerosols and is associated with sneezing, watery eyes, coughs and irritation of the throat. The inhaler allows administration of nicotine through the nose and is commonly associated with problems in digestion, runny nose, irritation of the mouth lining and coughs (Benowitz, 1999 George  OMalley, 2004).

Besides the nicotine replacement products, there are also some non-nicotine pills available for smoking cessation. Unlike the nicotine replacement products, these pills do not contain nicotine. Zyban is the trade name of a popular non-nicotine pill. It is a sustained release (SR) pill which contains bupropion hydrochloride which is a stimulant for the release of norepinephrine and dopamine. Norepinephrine and dopamine induce a feeling of euphoria and enhances their energy, occurrences that are similar to the action of nicotine. This drug is usually taken twice every day, and smokers are advised to start taking it before they stop smoking. Zyban is a prescription-only medicine and contraindications for its use include lactating or pregnant women, anorexic, epileptic and bulimic subjects and patients under other medications that contain bupropion hydrochloride. Common side effects of Zyban are a dry mouth and insomnia. However, these drugs are not sufficient to help one totally stop smoking and they are often used as part of an elaborate and well thought out smoking program whose key theme is usually behavior modification.

Manufactured and marketed by Pfizer, Chantix is the brand name for a popular anti-smoking and non-nicotine product whose active ingredient is varenicline tartrate. The chemical name for varenecline is 7,8,9,10-tetrahydro-6,10-methano-6H-pyrazino2,3-h3benzazepine, (2R,3R)-2,3-dihydroxybutanedioate. Varenecline is a partial agonist for 42 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It acts by binding to these receptors to generate agonist activity and prevent the attachment of nicotine to the receptors (Anon, 2007 Pfizer, 2009 Pfizer, 2009b).

Commonest side effects of Chantix are nausea, insomnia, dyspepsia, constipation, vomiting, abdominal pain and flatulence. The drug is also associated with headaches, respiratory disorders and appetite disorders (Pfizer, 2009b). Other less common but potent side effects include aggression, suicidal thoughts, depression, paranoia, anxiety, panic, hallucinations, anger and mania and serious skin reactions such as rashes (Pfizer, 2009). Neuropsychiatric effects aside, the drug is also associated with angioedema and hypersensitivity reactions. Less common disorders associated with chantix are anemia, and eye, ear, endocrine and cardiac disorders.

Contraindicated for pregnant women, people on asthma, blood thinning and insulin medications. Studies show that Chantix is more efficacious than preparations containing sustained release bupropion hydrochloride (Pfizer, 2009b).

Nicotine is an addictive compound as it can act as a stimulant and as an anxiolytic. Social acceptance of cigarette smoking is at an all time low. Nicotine has many adverse health effects and the most dangerous include lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, COPD, pneumonia, pregnancy complications among others. Medications for smoking cessation are expensive and are ridden with potentially lethal side effects. On their own, they cannot be effective solutions for smoking cessation but need to be incorporated as part of a wider behavior modification plan.

    The hypothesis of my guiding experiment is that the diversity of LABs will be very large coming from the isolates of fresh milk products. Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Leuconostoc variants will be observed and level of bacteriocin activity against Pseudomonas flourecens expected. Among the three brands, it is hypothesize that there will not be any significant differences on the amounts of LABs that will be observed as well as bacteriocin activities. The proposed experiment fits the definition of chemical biology or biochemistry because it deals with microorganisms which affect the human health. Furthermore, this experiment utilizes intermediate to advance chemistry methodologies and processes that will entail the researcher to obtain the results as well as test the validity of the hypothesis. Additionally, the product focus of this experiment also dictates that this will be a valuable addition of he knowledge base of consumer and producers in advancing the fortification and production processes of fresh milk.

Background
    Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) are extensively used in fermenting a wide variety of food products and are known for their preservative and therapeutic effects. When consumed, LAB such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus casei can aid lactose digestion, control cholesterol levels and intestinal. LAB can also produce bacteriocins, inhibitory substances other than organic acids which are antagonistic toward other microorganisms. Bacteriocins, are lethal complexes of poly peptides produced by bacteria, are not active against the producer bacterium.  Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus casei are commonly known as probiotics for human health, Probiotics are viable microorganisms that exhibit a beneficial effect on health of the host upon digestion by improving the properties of its indigestion microflora. The experiment will be conducted to isolate and identify the LABs from three different commercial brands of fresh milk.

Experimental Plan
    Sampling LAB isolates will be done by extracting sufficient amounts of milk per sample. Consumer brands that will be used are Anchor, Yakult, and Magnolia. Basic chemical extraction techniques will be done to obtain samples that will cover 30 treatment plating per brand.

    Plating Serial dilutions of milk will be prepared and then pour-plated win Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar and incubated at 30 degrees Celsius for 48 hours aerobically and algebraically. Anearobic system enveloped will be used. Individual colonies will be counted and then picked and streaked on MRS agar then this will be incubated aerobically for  30 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. Stock cultures of the isolates will be stored either in the stabs overlaid with mineral oil or in freeze-dried form in skim milk medium

    Culture Preservation The inoculated milk will be incubated for the genera Leuconostoc and Lactococcus. Viable counts in MRS agar will be counted in 6, 12, 18 and 24hours incubation period.

    Characteristics and Identification Morphological characterization will be done by examining the colony growth. Biochemical characterization will follow starting with Bacteriocin activity test. The flip streak method will be used in determining bacteriocin activity against Pseudomonas flourescens.  After incubation, a sterile spatula will be used to dislodge the agar from the bottom of the petridish and with the dish closed, the agar will be flipped onto the cover of the dish After wards, a scoopfull of 24 hr old indicator organism, Pseudomonas flourecens will be streaked perpendicularly to the producer streak on to the surface of the inverted agar, and this will then be aerobically incubated for 18-20 hrs at 20 C. Presence of a clear zone parallel to the producer streak was used as an indicator of inhibitory action or bacteriocin production. Activity test will follow by heating the milk samples in boiling water and cooled to 30 C. After mixing, 9ml of the inoculated milk will be added.

    Analysis Data on total LAB counts will be statistically analyzed using ANOVA. In a completely randomized design. The General Linear model procedure of the SAS software will be used. Data on chemical analysis (pH, moisture and salt) will be analyzed using regression and correlation.

Significance of the Research
    Determination of the levels of specific probiotic and harmful bacteria in fresh milk is detrimental to the whole consumer market. Furthermore, Antimicrobial activity or bacteriocin production against genus Pseudomonas and other psychotropic bacteria is important for the application of LAB as natural preservative of refrigerated milk and various milk products.

Hypothesis
    The hypothesis is that the diversity of LABs will be very large coming from the isolates of fresh milk products. Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Leuconostoc variants will be observed and level of bacteriocin activity against Pseudomonas flourecens expected. Among the three brands, it is hypothesize that there will not be any significant differences on the amounts of LABs that will be observed as well as bacteriocin activities.

    The experiment will focus on the measuring of bacterial levels on certain milk products. These bacteria levels will be either probiotic (beneficial) or harmful one. Determination of the critical signs of pseudomonas activities will greatly help in creating a new procedure of processing milk or storing mil. Furthermore, the identification and characterization of LAB in three different brands will result in a clear output of bacteria indexing. There results of this experiment heavily relies on the proper execution of the methodologies and the correct evaluation of each treatment.

The clear understanding of the physical and chemical properties of hydrocarbons is important in the synthesis of new organic compounds which can be used in the production of drugs and other chemical. It is imperative to note that most of compounds used in the management of the human, veterinary and plant diseases come are organic molecules (Olah, 2003). In addition, hydrocarbons have increasingly been utilized in the production of a range of domestic and industrial products. The paper discusses how the boiling point of hydrocarbons is affected by hydrogen and intermolecular bonding. The paper closes with a challenge in the solving of the problem of fossil fuel which remains a puzzle to decipher.


Chem. Point to Ponder Quest Week-Five
Quest 1 Addition of (-CH2) group to a molecule increases the boiling point
    Methane, CH4, a gas at room temperature has a lower boiling point than methanol CH3OH which is a liquid at room temperature because of the high potential for hydrogen bonding in methanol. The hydroxyl (-OH) group gives methanol a high chance of hydrogen bonding with other molecules hence a higher boiling point.

    Addition of a methyl (CH3) group to methanol significantly affects its boiling point. Ethanol, CH3CH2OH with an extra methyl group, has a higher boiling point than methanol, CH3OH because of the increased number of carbon atoms in ethanol than in methanol. This difference in boiling points, 780C for ethanol and 640C for methanol reflects the disparity in intermolecular interactions of the two molecules (Olah, 2003). The knowledge of boiling point of organic compounds gives chemists an insight on the structural and functional properties which can be utilized for instance, in designing novel drugs for human diseases.


Quest 2 Compounds with (-OH) groups have higher boiling points than those with CO
    Organic compounds with hydroxyl (R-OH) groups are known as alcohols while those with keto (RO) are called ketons. Alcohols have higher boiling points than ketones because of the potential for hydrogen bonding. Hydroxyl groups (-OH) are more reactive and readily form bonds that require energy expenditure to break them. Therefore, compounds with hydroxyl groups have higher boiling points compared to the compounds with keto groups. The appreciation of how boiling point can be affected by hydrogen bonding is to take a comparison between ethanol, CH3CH2-OH and methoxymethane, CH3-O-CH3 with boiling points of 78.30C and -250C respectively(Olah, 2003). The boiling point of ethanol is higher than that of methoxymethane because of the extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding in ethanol.


Quest 3 At some point in our distant or near future (depending on the source) a barrel of oil provides a wealth of different compounds through the refining process. Without oil we may find ourselves unable to make plastics, drug molecules, and lubricants for machine work.

    The knowledge of hydrocarbon chemistry continues to get clearer as chemists gain more understanding on different transformation mechanisms of the compounds. From the hydrocarbons, Chemists anticipate to generating new compounds with novel functions that will solve human problems such as pollution and disease (Olah, 2003). Already, the science of analog chemistry is being used to make a number of drugs used in healthcare. However, the overdependence on oil to produce products such as lubricants for automobile, medicines and plastics in homes and industries calls for trouble. As fossil deposits get exhausted, anytime from now, these essential products are going to lack. It is therefore a challenge to organic chemists to synthesize these products exclusively in the laboratory through chemical reactions that do not rely on oil.

1. How does the electron cross the node in the p cloud
    Observing electrons on a quantum scale can lead to seemingly nonsensical answers. Up is down and left is right when dealing with quantum mechanics, and the valid, correct answer defies common sense. Consider how the electron can pass through the node in a p-orbital to jump from one lobe to another without the input of energy. Accordingly, the node is off-limits to the electron, as the node is the place where the probability of finding an electron is zero, basing on its wave function. In the case of a p-orbital electron, the node is located at the nucleus, thus the electron couldnt possibly be found at the node, and so couldnt pass nodes when it transfers to the opposite lobe.

    Another principle of quantum mechanics that bears significance in this dilemma is the so-called Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states  It is impossible to specify simultaneously, with arbitrary precision, both the momentum and the position of a particle.  The angular momentum of an electron at the 2p orbital is pretty much given by the equation Ln(h2) by Bohr, but according to the uncertainty principle the distance r of the electron from the nucleus cannot be known or even approximated. The electron can be located anywhere along the second energy level at any point in time. We should also bear in mind that the surface of the p orbital is only an approximation of where the electron can be found more than 90 of the time, so 10 of the time it can be located outside this surface. Therefore the electron does not need to pass through the node to transfer from one lobe to another.

2. Discuss your wave-ness (your wave nature vs. your particle nature).
    Another postulate that goes against common sense but is time and time again invoked to explain various phenomena is the wave-particle duality. One particular phenomena that supports the validity of this theory is the diffraction of electrons, such as in electron microscopes. We know that electrons are particles, and yet its ability to go around corners like waves on water, even when interference by other electrons is eliminated by firing one electron at a time, encountering a block implies that it must have a wave-like quality. This theory is put in mathematical form by de Broglies relationship,   hm. This relationship applies to all objects with a mass m and moving at a speed , regardless of how massive the object is or how fast or slow it is moving. For instance, an electron (mass 9.11  10-31 kg) moving at 6  106 m s-1 by an electric potential of 100 V will have a wavelength of about 120 pm, which makes it suitable for electron diffraction techniques.

    Ordinary objects, because of the inverse relation of wavelength to mass, should have much smaller wavelengths according to the de Broglie relation. A 1 kilogram box moving at 1  m s-1 will then have a wavelength of 6.63  10-34 m, which corresponds to a very high energy wave. However, as classical physics hold more sway over ordinary objects than quantum mechanical effects such as the wave-particle theory the wave property of ordinary objects is mostly overridden, although any particle should still exhibit wave properties. Thus your every movement still  generates  quantum mechanical waves, although these waves are negligible in a macroscopic scale.

3. Discuss The act of observation changes the observed.
    Looking back at the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the observer effect can be used to get some grasp of this difficult topic. The observer effect, wherein the act of observing changes the state of the quantity being observed, occurs quite often. One good example of an observer effect is the measurement of the temperature of a sample using a thermometer. As the thermometer does not actually measure the temperature of the sample but rather its own temperature (equal to the temperature of the sample when some time is allowed to pass), the measured temperature of the sample is not its actual temperature but rather the mean of its temperature and that of the thermometer, which may be hotter or colder than the sample. When Heisenberg first introduced his principle in his thesis, he envisioned a sort of microscope with which the electron can be directly observed. In this microscope, a beam of gamma rays is sent through an atom so that it hits an electron in the atom and rebound. This  observation , according to his thought experiment, of the electron changes its trajectory and motion, so that at the moment the position of the electron is measured its momentum changes. Like the thermometer and the temperature of the sample being measured, the act of measurement using the light from the  microscope  changes the state of the observed, so that the actual information  sought about the electron is lost. He designed this thought experiment in order to explain his proposal to his classically inclined colleagues, who still didnt understand his postulate and its implications. However this view of the uncertainty principle is somewhat questionable, as several loopholes (things like depth of field) can be found regarding the  experiment  that undermines its point. Nonetheless this thought experiment is useful in understanding the uncertainty principle at a basic level.

    The increased over dependence of the world on the fossil fuels due to the increased energy demand is in no way sustainable. There is therefore a need for the scientists to develop more environmental friendly and renewable sources of energy. The world energy requirement can be sustained if the fossil fuels, solar energy, nuclear power, hydroelectric power, wind power and biofuels are used appropriately. However, with the modern science, more renewable sources of energy such as biofuel should be encouraged in all societies (Lopes da Silva, 2009).

Biofuels
    Biofuels are sources of renewable energy where fuels are derived from oil crops. It is a carbon neutral and a renewable source of energy that can replace the environmental degrading fossil fuels. The production of biofuels does not however affect the food security since it can be easily sustained by waste animal and plants oil or food crops. The major weakness of biofuels is its inability to support the high demand of fuels in the world (Lopes da Silva, 2009). Despite this challenge, in the past few years, scientists have concentrated on research on biodiesel with a lot of success. There is increased use of biofuels all over the world. The European Union is the world largest biofuels producer with developing countries especially in the Latin America accelerating in biofuels production. It is estimated that biofuels production in Brazil will surpass the production in developed countries such as the United States and many European countries (Deng, et al, 2009).

    Despite the high increase in biofuel production in the world, the potentiality of micro algae in the production of biodiesel has not been fully exploited. They are potential feedstock and have advantages when compared to other plants based feedstock. They have a higher fat content due to efficient carbon dioxide fixation and they do not compete with food crops for land as like other terrestrial plants (Johnson  Wen, 2009). They also have no season and therefore can provide feedstock any time and can be grown in non arable lands or nonpotable water which makes the initial costs cheap. However, the production of biodiesel from micro algae is limited by several conditions that affect the culture. In autotrophic conditions, the concentration of the cells is too low for economical harvesting. Moreover, in many cases, there are cases of contamination by other species in the culture system which reduces the yields further. However, these problems can be solved by use of heterotrophic cultures which is followed by transesterification. Direct transesterification has many advantages as it overcomes the above problems while at the same time aiding in the recovery of the culture (Johnson  Wen, 2009). This creates a need to device means of monitoring the oil content in the cells in order to be able to control the process. Some of the traditional methods such as gravimetric determination and solvent extraction followed by GC or HPLC analysis are time consuming and wasteful. The unreliability of these methods can be solved by the use of more modern multiparamater flow cytometry. The method gives more reliable results in situ (Lopes da Silva, 2009).

    In an experiment aimed at monitoring lipid production of two micro algae species using flow cytometry technique to determine the suitable species for large scale production of biodiesel, two species- Neochloris oleoabundans and Scenedesmus obliquus were selected for investigations. The two species were grown in outdoor raceway water ponds under the same conditions of oxygen, light and temperatures. The culture growth rate was evaluated periodically using optic density methods. The oil content was also evaluated using the gravimetric determination method and the flow cytometry method. Fatty acid concentration was also determined using gas chromatography after the law material was methylated. S. obliquus was reported to have had a higher maximum biomass and lower oil content while the N. oleoabundans had a lower mass maximum biomass and higher oil content. However, both species showed sufficient oil production that can be applied commercially. The flow cytometry technique proved to be a time efficient and reliable monitoring method since the results were consistent with the gravimetric analysis results (Lopes da Silva, 2009).

    In another experiment aimed at determining the best methods that can be used to produce biodiesel from micro algae, a two stage and one stage methods were investigated. In this experiment, a heterotrophic species, Schizocytrium limacinum was selected. The two stages method involved solvent extraction of the oil form the biomass followed by transesterification. On the other hand, one stage method involved transesterification of the oils while in the algal biomass. The results of the experiment indicated that the use of one stage method in biodiesel production produced higher yield (66.37  based on the biomass) as compared to the two stage production which had a yield of 57. The high yield in the one stage production was however observed when the biomass was freeze dried (Johnson  Wen, 2009).

    Research on the production of biodiesel especially using the more renewable feedstock such as microscopic algae can go along way in the reduction of overdependence of fossil fuels. The research should aim at investigating the best species of algae and the optimum conditions and methods of production to maximize yield.