Chemistry

Considering the information posted on the overturned tanker truck, it contains thionyl chloride, a corrosive, and colorless to pale yellow or reddish chemical which corresponds to the UN number 1836 and is described by the Class 8 label code placed on the truck.  Given such chemical, an NFPA diamond consisting of 0 at 12 oclock for being not flammable a 2 at 3 oclock for a possible violent chemical reaction a 4 at 9 oclock for being highly health hazardous upon contact or when inhaled or ingested and a slashed W at 6 oclock for a possible dangerous reaction with water, is appropriate. When faced with such event concerning such hazardous chemical and the likes, as an EHS professional, the following information should be considered

The Elements of Danger (physical and chemical properties, extent of possible health hazard, amount of chemical involved, time essence, etc.)
The Condition of the Environment (location, weather, population, etc.)
The Ways of Getting Rid of the Chemical (needed materials and equipment, etc.)

While the information regarding the elements of danger concerning the involved chemical so as the ways of getting rid of the chemical are known to an EHS professional, the condition of the environment can also be easily determined through observation. Knowing that the chemical involved is highly hazardous and cannot be easily taken cared of without the help of a hazardous material team which at the moment is at most 15 miles (24.14 km.) away, the following precautionary   or initial actions should be done

Call for a hazardous material team.

While the hazardous material squad is not yet around,
To prevent more danger of the chemical reacting with water, the ongoing irrigation activity of spraying water should be prevented.

Isolate the overturned truck 60 meters in all directions when the chemical is spilled in water or only 30 meters in all directions when spilled on land. This involves preventing anyone (drivers and other individuals so as animals) from getting closer to the accident area.

Inform the nearby inhabitants of the town which is 1 mile (1.61 km.) away from the accident area to stay beyond 1.7 km. of the accident area when chemical is spilled in water or 0.8 km. beyond when the chemical is spilled on land.

If personal protective equipment or clothing is present, try stopping the leak if possible. Spilled chemical can be absorbed in sand and be contained in sealable containers while waiting for disposal.

Upon the arrival of a hazardous material team,
Inform the team of the chemical type, the extent or amount of spilled chemical, the hazards involved so as of the precautionary actions already taken cared.

Impede spillage with complete protective equipment or clothing when leakage was not previously stopped after which, dispose the spilled chemical. Spilled chemical can be absorbed in sand and be contained in sealable containers prior to disposal. On the other hand, when spillage was previously stopped and contained, dispose spilled chemical eventually.    

The name phosphorous is derived from the Greek word for light bearing, phosphoros, from the Greek words phs (light) and phoros (bearer) (Bentor 2010). Phosphorous was discovered by Hennig Brand, a German physician in 1669. His means of isolation though unorthodox lead to the discovery of this very important element. He used roughly 60 buckets of urine for this isolation, by boiling, filtering and otherwise processing as many as 60 buckets of urine (Jefferson, 2010). In this experiment, Henning managed to isolate white phosphorous, characteristic for its white glow upon its exposure to oxygen.  Nowadays phosphorous is obtained from inorganic phosphate rock, calcium phosphate, (Ca3(PO4)2).

Phosphorous is assigned symbol P and has an atomic number 15 and atomic mass 30.973762 amu. Its melting point, boiling point, and density are 317.30 Kelvin (44.15C or 111.47F), 553.65 Kelvin (280.5C or 536.9F) and 1.82 grams per cubic centimeter respectively (cited in Jefferson Lab 2010). Its is found at period three and group 15 of the periodic table. The group name designated is Pnictogen.

Though phosphorous is a white solid non-metal at room temperature, it is a highly reactive element and therefore does not exist in an unbound state. The atomic structure of phosphorous is as follows 2 electrons on the first energy level 8 on the second energy level and 5 on the third energy level with the following electronic configuration  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiNeon o Neon Ne 3s2 3p3. Phosphorous has no isomers, but has 23 isotopes for example P24, P25, P26, P31, P32, P33 etc 22 of which are radioactive and only P31 as stable. Three allotropes of phosphorous are known black, white and red with white being its original form. Both black and red phosphorous are obtained by heating white phosphorous (250C for red) or by exposing it to sunlight, but for the production of black phosphorous mercury catalyst and a seed crystal of black phosphorous are required (cited in Jefferson Lab 2010).

Phosphorous can react with other elements, compounds and acids to form phosphorous compounds. Phosphorous pentoxide also known as tetraphosphorus decaoxide, P4O10, is formed by the reaction of phosphorous and oxygen. P4(s)  5O2(g)  P4O10(s)

It appears as a white crystalline solid and has a melting point(mp), boiling point (bp), and density of 422C 605C and 2300 kg m-3

Phosphorous trioxide also known as tetraphosphorus hexaoxide, P4O6, can also be formed via reaction with oxygen, though the conditions must be controlled.  Under careful control (75 O2, 25 N2, 50C, 90 mm Hg), a mixture is formed, one of the products phosphorus trioxide  (Webelements 2010). P4(s)  3O2(g)  P4O6(s). It appears as a white crystalline solid. Its mp 23.8C, bp 173C and density 2130 kg m-3.

White phosphorus, P4, reacts vigorously with all the halogens at room temperature to form phosphorus trihalides (Webelements, 2010). Examples of halogens include chlorine, bromine iodine and fluorine. Phosphorous(III) fluoride formed through the following reaction,
P4(s)  6F2(g)  4PF3(g)
                                       ..
P
                                           F                   F
                                                   
                                                      F

  Colourless gas with mp of -152C bp -102C and density 3.8 kg m-3 (gas)  (Webelements, 2010).
Diphosphorous tetraflouride can also be formed through the reaction of phosphorous and fluorine. P4(s) F2(g)  P2F4(g) It appears as a colourless gas with a mp of -86.5C.

Phosphorus(III) chloride, formed through the following reaction, P4(s)  6Cl2(g)  4PCl3(l)
                               ..
P
                                           Cl                   Cl
                                                   
                                                      Cl

It appears as a colourless liquid with mp of -112C, bp of 76C and density 1575 kg m-3 (cited in Webelements 2010).
Phosphorus(III) iodide, formed through the following reaction, P4(s)  6I2(g)  4PI3(g)
                              ..
P
                                             I                   I
                                                   
                                                      I

Appears as a white crystalline solid with a bp of 227C, mp 61C and density 4200 kg m-3.
Phosphorous(III) bromide, obtained through, P4(s)  6Br2(g)  4PBr3(l)

                               ..
P
                                           Br                   Br
                                                   
                                                      Br

This appears as a colourless liquid with a mp of -41.5, C bp of 173.2 C and density of 2.852 gcm3, it is very soluble in water.

A different reaction can be seen with bromide. Where phosphorus(V) bromide is formed. 2P5(s)  5Br2(g)  2PBr5(s)

                                                      Br
                                     
P
                                            Br                 Br
                                                 Br        Br


It is seen as an orange crystalline solid with a melting point above 100C and a boiling point of 106C and a density of 3600 kg m-3.

White phosphorous can react with iodine under special conditions to form phosphorus(II) iodide. White phosphorus, P4, reacts with iodine, I2, in carbon disulphide (CS2) to form, P2I4 (Webelements,2010). P4(s)  4I2(g)  2P2I4(g)
  I
 
IP-PI                         This occurs as a red solid with a melting point of 125.5C
       
        I
Diphosphorous tetrahydride, occurs as a result of the reaction of hydrogen and phosphorous. P4(s)  4H2(g)  2P2H4(g)
 H

The modern human community is no doubt heavily dependent on electricity for its sustainable existence. It is electricity that is driving our social and economic sectors in the community. Therefore, living in a world without electricity would require a number of changes and adjustments. First, most production industries could be deemed non-operational. People will change to using traditional food and cloth production techniques.

Another change is in the financial sector. Since electricity is the driving force for the automation of financial services, banks will go back to executing transaction through hand written records. Our approach to entertainment will also change. Physical forms of entertainment such as the use of guitar, physical appearance by entertainers will remain the only option. Education disciplines like information technology and electrical engineering will become useless.

Most medical drugs are current produced in factories through the use of electricity. Therefore, the use of traditional treatments such as herb medicine will become common. The medical profession will change to become a practice of experience in diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Modern trends were electricity is employed in giving precise diagnosis and effective treatment of some diseases like cancer will cease to exist.

Transport of goods and people will also change. Animal driven transport will be adopted. Since cross border trade is inevitable, the society will be forced to go back to using wind powered sailing ships and bouts. The issue of security in the society will dictate for physical presence of police patrols due to failure of intelligence surveillance security systems. Face to face communication and posting of letters will be most reliable communication methods. Lighting and cooking at home will involve using of bio-fossils such as firewood and petroleum products. The human community will be forced to adapt to working during the day and sleeping night. Lastly, water supply will be through wind power, gravity andor physical carrying of from the source. All in all, waking one morning to find no electricity will no doubt affect all aspects of our life. Almost all our modern technological advancements will become useless.

I imagine life without electricity even a brief power outage will make a mess to normal life. It is well known of what inconveniences will result when there are experienced blackouts for only a few hours. Well, waking up in the morning and only to find that the light switch cannot produce that instant light, will cause all electricity-dependent equipments functionless. I will first think about the hair driers, the fridges, the computers, the microwaves and so forth, and will be imagining life without them as they will not be working until the electricity is restored.

On a day without electricity, the entertainment, which is very crucial to life, will be a non-existence. The power to run those home theaters, televisions, radios and entertainment gadgets will not be available. The computers will not be powered, meaning that the computers games and other forms of entertainment derived from using the computers will be a story to be told.

Apart from entertainment, we heavily rely on computers for communication via the internet. The social life will significantly change if electricity will not be available even in a single day. From social networks such as Facebook to office and business communications, electricity powers the machines making communications a lot easier. People would turn to the old-school paper work or word of mouth communication via messengers.

The society should be prepared in making changes which will see that life goes on well even without electricity. Home appliances would be run by solar or wind power. Voltaic cells, dry cells or generators would also be an option. Biogas and wood fuel would be the main source of heat energy, especially for cooking.

In general, life without electricity would be challenging although the society can made important adjustments in order to make life proceed on well as normal. The computers should be able to be powered, music should be playing on radios, people should be able to chat on Facebook and the fridges should always be on to avoid food going bad. This will only happen if the society makes critical adjustments.

Since its invention, electricity has become one of the most widely used utilities the world all over. Besides lighting, cooking, ironing, and keeping people warm in homes and offices, electricity forms the foundation of modern transport and telecommunication industries. Without electricity, computers, mobile and fixed telephones, radio systems, and televisions, the internet and a host of other peripheral services people have become accustomed to living with would not exist at all.

That is why if I woke up one morning into a world without electricity, I and the entire society would have to make radical changes and re-adjustments if life has to go on. First and foremost, electricity is the most common form of lighting in homes, offices, business premises and streets. The entire society and I would have to revert to other sources of lighting like paraffin lanterns or fires lit from dry wood. The same would also find ultimate use in cooking and in keeping warm in cold weather. Coal iron boxes would resurface as all electric ones would turn obsolete.

The foundation of modern digital communication is laid on electricity. A world without electricity would therefore mean a total absence of the internet, television and radio. We would therefore have to find alternative methods of communication. We would result to writing mail by hand to our families, friends and work colleagues. We would have to ask or wait for typewriter printed newspapers to know of current developments in governments and the society in general. In work and in school, we would result to manual drafting and filing of records, assignments, appointments and lecture notes.

Without the social networking supported by information technology, keeping in touch with friends would have to assume old-school methods like writing letters and visiting. The entertainment industry would undergo much change. Digital film would be non-existent, so people would result to attending stage plays, bullfights and other circus activities for entertainment. Electricity lights the streets. With darkness all over, insecurity would escalate and people would have to stay indoors after dark.

1-We have now completed our exploration of the LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLISM of chemistry. Refer to the FOCUS for Exp 5 and Exp 6 (in lab manual)and write a summary of
What you have learned about this aspect of chemistry, and
The kind of effort needed to understand the chemistry ideas or words in a meaningful way.

Upon knowing of the need for appropriate language and symbols even in the field of chemistry, I realized and learned that a mastery of such is necessary in order to completely comprehend and utilize chemistry and its concepts in a meaningful and productive manner. To further explain, even though the presence of unique languages and symbols may prevent the general population from understanding chemical processes and equations, those knowledgeable in the field do not use and develop such means of communication to brag or to distinguish themselves from others. Specifically, the application of the aforesaid means of communication in chemistry is of vital significance if the progress and development of chemistry, especially in terms of research and industrial applications, would be maintained at an efficient pace. While terms and chemical symbols may certainly be a challenge to master and comprehend at first, it is undeniable that the use of such is in a fact a means of simplifying the highly complex language of chemistry.

2-research one chemistry topic of your choice and report what you find. Many of you are nursing major, a suggestion the chemical composition of antacids and chemistry of how they work. Please feel free to choose your own topic.

I want information on the CHEMISTRY of your topic, use no undefined terms (or define any terms used) and discuss the chemistry of the topic in details and terms that the man on the street could find meaningful
Paracetamol, one of the most commonly used medications for headache and fever, is in fact a result of advances in chemistry. In this sense, it would be appropriate to assume that paracetamol is chemically produced with a specific chemical composition. To explain, the main parts or components of paracetamol incorporate three main characteristics specifically, a benzene ring, a hydroxyl group, and an additional nitrogen atom  are the main features of the paracetamols chemical structure. While such details may be important, it would be most ideal to further expound upon the manner in which the aforesaid medication functions. Given that the paracetamol is mainly used for the treatment of fever and headaches, its chemical action targets one of the most common the sources of such problems. Specifically, one of the enzymes within the body, which are mainly biological means of internal control, when activated due to certain conditions results in the development of the previously mentioned symptoms. In the presence of paracetamol, the actions of the enzyme that initiates the occurrence of headaches and fever are prevented from occurring in other words, the paracetamol blocks the enzyme from accomplishing its task or main function. Hence, while the composition and action of paracetamol may be rather simplistic in concept, it is true that the discovery and development of such a medication is without doubt a chemical marvel.      

C100 L EXPERIMENT  5
THE LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLISM OF CHEMISTRY

Every discipline develops its own language and symbols for communication.  Those symbols often become the gateway for learning and those who will not learn them will never be able to venture very far into the knowledge base of that discipline.  You cannot learn to read until you master your ABCs.   Mathematicians communicate in the symbols of    and    and  H  and  d  and    and  , and mathematics cannot be learned until meaning is associated with those symbols.   Medical professionals speak in a language of abbreviations  ACL, BP, CBC, ECG, ICCU, and the layperson has to learn some of this language to even follow the doctor programs on TV.

In chemistry the symbols for the elements is the alphabet and the language is the means by which we string those symbols together to express meaning.  If the following symbolism,
2H2 (g)       O2 (g)         2H2O (l)
does not prompt you to say (at least)  hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to produce water, you are effectively locked out of any hope of understanding chemistry.   The symbols actually expressed much more information, but we will be satisfied with the above interpretation.

In this exercise we will research the names and chemical formulas for our 17 solids.  We will then compare some of these names and symbols with the properties we documented in Experiment 2.  This work will prepare us to attach the symbolism to some of the chemical reactions we observed in Experiment 2.

Every discipline has its own language and symbolism which must be learned.  In chemistry, the symbols are used to define the substances and any changes that take place.

We have the time to look at only a very small subset of the type of chemicals and chemical reactions that can occur.  We will focus only on the chemicals that we characterized in Experiment 2.  The names we have been using for the solid chemicals are archaic andor common names, to begin to unravel the system of symbols and the language of chemistry we will need to find the official names and symbols for these chemicals as established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).  This is the group that has been given the authority to establish the language and symbolism that chemists speak.

There are essentially two components to this exercise

1. We have to access the shared records that have been accumulated, verified, and organized by chemists over the centuries.  We are going to use the internet to do this, but anyone can submit information to the internet, so we have to make sure that we are accessing valid and reliable information.  We need to establish the criteria that will allow us be confident that the information we are accessing is consistent with the reliable, professional record.

2. We need to explore what the symbol is telling us about that chemical using both our collected information and the official record.  Exploring this information will lead us into the language used in chemistry and allow us to develop some level of understanding of that language.

C100 L EXPERIMENT 6
CLASSIFYING SUBSTANCES
You ask what is the use of classification, arrangement, systemization
I answer you order and simplification are the first steps toward the mastery of a subject-

There are millions of individual chemicals.  If each one had to be understood individually, there would be an overwhelming amount of chemical information to deal with.  However, if we can find similarities or common sets of properties that allow us to group chemicals into categories, accessing that chemical information to solve new problems or create new products becomes manageable.  Finding common characteristics and placing chemicals into groups has been a valuable tool in chemistry.  Out of this work has come an incredibly useful set of classifications  acid, base, oxidizing agent, carbohydrate, protein, vitamin, and many more  the list of classifications itself is almost overwhelming.

As we experienced in Experiment 4, separation procedures can be used to isolate pure compounds.   Once pure, these compounds can be studied to determine their properties as we did in Experiment 2   Chemists collect, record, and organize this information so it can be shared and used, just as we did in Experiment 2.  In the last exercise we discovered ways to access this record and began to learn the symbols and language that chemists speak in.  

What we will explore in this exercise is accessing the records professional chemists have compiled on our 17 chemicals and then look for the similar properties that allow these chemicals to be put into groups  groups that will have their own language.

Pure compounds can be characterized by their properties and those properties can be used to group chemicals together and label them in specific ways.  Discovering the language that groups these chemicals is important in understanding how chemists organize chemical information.

Generally when a group of items or a group of people is recognized as having a common set of properties, a word is created to label that group.  Two examples are the group of plants with similar properties labeled vegetable, and the group of people with similar political beliefs labeled Republican.  If you dont know what the similar properties are, however, the label conveys no meaning.  Chemistry is full of this type of labeling terminology and it is our job to wade through some it in this exercise in order to develop a deeper understanding of our 17 chemicals

What we did in EX6
THE LANQUAGE AND SYMBOLISM OF CHEMISTRY
and CLASSIFYING  SUBSTANCES
EXPERIENCE SUMMARY

1.  Write the chemical equation for all the reactions identified from Exp. 2 Table 2.

Table Salt NaCl -Pb2NO3-NaNO3PbCl2

Washing Soda  NaCO32-Pb2NO3-NaNO3PbCO3

Epsom Salt  Mg2SO4-Pb2 NO3-Mg(NO3)2PbSO

Flores Martis  Fe3Cl-Pb2NO3-Fe(NO3)3Pb(Cl)2
           Fe3Cl-NH4OH-Fe(OH)3NH4Cl

Blue Vitrol  Cu2SO42-Pb2NO3-Cu(NO3)2PbSO4

Retgersite Ni2SO42-Ca2NO3Ni(NO3)2CaSO4
     Ni2SO42-NH4OH-Ni(OH)22NH4SO4

Ozone layer is a layer within the atmosphere of the earth, which consists of high concentrations of Ozone (triatomic oxygen, O3). Ozone is responsible for absorption of about 93-99 per cent of harmful ultraviolent radiation (UV) from the sun that is a potential threat to life on earth. This layer is being destroyed by the excessive production of Chlorofluorocarbons popularly referred to as CFCs (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006). The destruction is highly concentrated over the Antarctic normally being termed as the ozone hole due to the extent of destruction. The destruction of ozone leads to serious environmental consequences such as global warming and threaten life on earth. This paper examines the ozone layer destruction, consequences and global action to reduce the menace.

Role of CFCs in ozone depletion 
The destruction of the ozone is attributed to Chlorofluorocarbons, which consists of mainly three atoms Chlorine, Carbon and Fluorine, which are the main cause of ozone destruction (Stanley, 2000). Besides, some free radical catalysts mainly Nitric oxide radical (NO-) hydroxyl radical (OH-), atomic Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) are responsible for depletion of the ozone. All of these atoms and radicals have can be naturally and artificially made. Presently, the hydroxyl and Nitric oxide radicals occur naturally at the stratosphere. Chlorine and Bromine are as a result of human activity mainly found in stable organic compounds particularly Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). When the CFCs find their way to the atmosphere without being destroyed as a result of their low reactivity, the Bromine and Chlorine are detached from the main compounds by activity of ultraviolent light i.e. hV (h-Plancks constant and V-frequency of the electromagnetic radiation)CFCl3  hVC                    FCl2  Cl

The free Bromine and Chlorine atoms are responsible for destruction of ozone molecules through different catalytic processes. The most common reaction of Bromine or Chlorine with the Ozone involves the BrCl atoms taking away one oxygen atom from Ozone forming ClOBrO and leaving an ordinary oxygen molecule (Stanley, 2000). The BrCl monoxides can also react with an ozone molecule forming another chlorinebromine atom and two other molecules of oxygen. The equations below represent these reactions
Chlorine  Ozone                     Chlorideoxide  Oxygen gas
Cl  O3                           ClO  O2
Chloride oxide  Ozone                       Chlorine  Oxygen gas
ClO  O3                     Cl  2O2

This leads to decrease in amount and concentration of Ozone. One chlorine atom is capable of reacting with 100,000 ozone molecules, which makes the ozone more vulnerable considering the rate of CFC release to the atmosphere.

Sources and uses of CFCs
Chlorofluorocarbons are widely used in most applications in life due to their stable, non-combustive and harmless properties. They are used as cleansing agents in electronic industry, coolant for air conditioners, foaming agents for making insulators among other numerous uses (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006). Due to their role in destruction of the ozone layer, CFCs production was completely banned by 1995. There is need to ensure proper use of CFCs currently used in appliances to ensure their effects are minimal.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are another important agent of ozone destruction but their effects are less powerful as compared to that of CFCs. However, they must also, be contained to reduce Ozone destruction.

Consequences of ozone destruction
The destruction of ozone layer permits the penetration of the harmful ultraviolent radiation direct to the earth surface. Stanley (2000) outlines the following effects of UV on human life including
Increased incidence of skin cancer
Increased sun burning and cataracts
Adverse effects on animals and crops
Threatening sea life due to reduction in planktons growth in oceans
Repressed immune systems in living organism, hence increased diseases
Cooling of the stratosphere of the earth and finally but not the least
Global warming
Global concern on ozone destruction

The consequences of global warming are adverse and are being experienced in various parts of the world. Ozone destruction can be reduced through reduction of CFCs. The long-term solution however can only be met through phasing out the use of CFCs by adopting green strategies to save the ozone (Mathew, 2008). Various innovations to reduce production of green house gases that are responsible for destruction of the ozone have been adopted. Developed countries have particularly opted for alternative energy sources such as solar energy that does not produce CFCs.

Ozone destruction is a global concern and awareness regarding effects of its destruction should be increased as well as promoting CFC reduction strategies. According to United Nations Environmental Program scientific report on environmental impact and technological economic assessment in 1994, the amount of chlorine and bromine was predicted to peak in the troposphere in 1994. It would peak 3-5 years later in the stratosphere and later diminish as long as all the signatory countries remain conscious of the 1992 revised Montreal Protocol (Stephen, Madhava and Lani, 2004). Further, the reduction in ozone depletion was predicted to continue in the remaining years of the 20th century. With other factors being unchanged, the ozone is expected to begin to restore in the early years of the 21st century and by 2045, the Antarctic hole would have disappeared. The most recent conference in Copenhagen was also an effort to reduce ozone destructions by country members. However, the predictions made are far from reality as the efforts to contain CFCs are faced by different challenges especially in the developing countries.

Ozone layer is the layer that lies between 15-20 kilometers from the earth surface, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolent radiation from the sun. Its destruction is caused by HCFs and HCFCs that are mainly produced through human activities. The consequences of ozone destruction are fatal with global warming being the most evident result. Global concerns over ozone depletion are in an increase with stakeholders advocating for green strategies to reduce production of CFCs. Various environmental bodies are putting pressure on manufacturers to reduce the use of CFCs and HCFCs for the sake of the ozone layer. However, this is being faced by various challenges including overpopulation, industrialization, urbanization and increased exploitation of natural resources especially fossil fuel.