Chemistry

There are various chemicals known for having negative effects on human beings if these are misused and these include recreational drugs and alcohol. These recreational drugs include many types as heroine, cocaine, methamphetamines and many more.  This paper shall cover negative effects of exposure to cocaine along with risk assessments and highly vulnerable groups.

Section One Recreational DrugsBeverages
What is Cocaine
Cocaine is known among extremely addictive brain stimulants also known as drug of the 80s and 90s as it was most popular in that era. Cocaine is one of the oldest addictive drugs known. Source, coca leave have been chewed and ingested for brain stimulation since thousands of decades. Cocaine hydrochloride is purified form of cocaine.  Source of pure cocaine used to be Erythroxylon coca bush but it became a luxury after crop reduction scheme started in major growing countries as Peru and Bolivia. Today one of the largest cocaine producer is California. Cocaine is also referred to as schedule II drug as it is used as a recreational drug and as a medication or legitimate uses as local anesthesia of eye and ear or for surgical purposes.  Sold on streets as fine crystalline powder, cocaine has many names as coke, C, snow, flake, or blow.

Chemical Forms of Cocaine
Two forms of cocaine are usually abused, water-soluble hydrochloride salt and water insoluble cocaine base also known as freebase.  Hydrochloride salt of cocaine is also referred to as active form of cocaine and it can be injected as well as snorted. On the other hand, base form of cocaine has been originally interacted with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate and water. Afterwards this mixture is heated in order to remove the hydrochloride that produces a smoke able substance and this is referred to as crack referring to cracking sound when this mixture is heated (NIDA InfoFacts Cocaine, 2010).

Section Two Consequences of Cocaine Misuse
Organs Affected
Main organ affected after usage of cocaine is brain, specifically reward areas, the base ganglia. Studied included in the following sections will focus on these consequences. In addition to this, immune system and heart impairment is also observed.

Affect On Brain Cocaine Addiction Mechanism
Research has been carried out by Dr. Michael Nader and colleagues at Wake Forest University showing that initial use of cocaine lowers dopamine receptors availability in base ganglia that functions in reward system. This reduction in receptors further increases addiction and causes changes in decision making as well as cognitive functioning. Dopamine receptors are important for their functioning in thought, emotions, motivations and mobility. Thereby a gradual use of cocaine reduces the availability of dopamine receptors in human beings. Studies have suggested that lower the dopamine receptors higher is the addiction for cocaine. Main mechanism involved in cocaine usage is release of dopamine and attachment with the receptors thereby producing feelings and emotions associated with usual dopamine as happiness and feeling of being rewarded. It has been suggested that brain cells in individuals are stimulated to release dopamine in a sufficient amount that can fill up all dopamine receptors.

Brain activity in rewarding areas is thereby strongly reduced as a result of cocaine usage. Several studies have been carried out on monkeys and it has been shown that prolonged use of cocaine impairs functioning of brain beyond pleasure and motivation centers, and penetrates into memory and information processing areas. 

In this case one of the most important findings suggest that as compared to non abusers of cocaine, chronic cocaine abusers have lesser cerebral blood flow  in their brains and these studies  have tested any other factors that might be playing roles in reducing blood flow  thereby confirming  that chronic cocaine abuse is related with reduced blood flow.  Further brain areas and effects of cocaine on these areas are summarized as below (NIDA, 2009).

Effects On Heart
It has been studied by Dr. Shenghan Lai and colleagues at The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions that left ventricular function in heart is reduced in chronic cocaine abusers. These studies have included evidences from MRI on various patients showing that pumping efficiency in left ventricular wall in the heart is greatly reduced.

Other than this studied have suggested that chances of heart attacks and stroke are highly increased because of chronic cocaine abuse. This is because chronic cocaine abuse causing a narrowing of blood vessels increases in blood pressure and increased heart rate causing cardiac arrhythmias. As a response to inflammation, some blood factors respond by increasing clotting to increase repair against inflammation. One of these blood factors is known as von Willebrand factor (vWF) and it remains elevated in blood after a single exposure to cocaine. Other proteins that are observed to remain elevated in blood after cocaine usage include fibrinogen and C-reactive protein thereby higher the concentration of these clotting factors, higher is the risk of heart attack (Zickle, 2003).

Effects On Sleep
Studies were carried out by scientists belonging to Yale and Harvard Schools of Medicine whereas study was funded by NIDA.  Studies also focused on focus and attention deficits in abusers. Studies suggest that cocaine abuse disturbs the need of sleep which is sometimes incorrectly calculated by brain under effects of cocaine. It has been added that abusers coming in for treatment get dropped out from the treatments because of lack of attention.

Chronic cocaine users thereby face problems in their sleep time as compared to non-abusers. It is seen that lower time is needed by non-abusers to sleep but cocaine abusers thereby reducing their sleep time require much greater time. In addition to this, another problem associated with these abusers is that they are not aware of theory lack of sleep, as they perceive that they are sleeping right. Thereby during treatment, they do not highlight sleep issue to doctors (NIDA, 2008).

Remedial Actions against Cocaine
Blocking Brain Receptors
It has been mentioned that one of the main issues being faced in case of cocaine abusers treatments is their lack of attention as brain centers are severely affected in chronic cocaine abuse. Links of these abusers is a group of people who already are drug abusers thereby leaving these abusers at a higher risk of abusing drugs even after treatments. Thereby keeping these issues in minds, studies have been carried out by researchers at Vrije Universiteit Medical Center in Netherlands and NIDAs Intramural Research Program suggesting that relapses in chronic drug abusers can be reduced by blocking specific receptors in brain activated by cocaine misuse. Thereby if these receptors are blocked by engineered drugs than administration of cocaine will have no effects on brain leaving the abuser feel nothing out of cocaine (Mann, 2004).

Epileptic Medicine As A Treatment Against Cocaine Usage
Since the last twenty years, in United States, epilepsy has been treated by using vigabatrin and it has been a promising medication and these days researchers have taken into account this medication that has been thought to have promising effects on chronic cocaine abuse. Studies have been carried out since the 80s by Dr. Stephen L. Dewey of Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, and Dr. Jonathan D. Brodie from New York University School of Medicine showing that this medication reduces dopamine levels in the brain. The following figure shows the difference in dopamine levels after use of cocaine.

Thereby it has been shown that by using GVG, effects of drugs as methamphetamine and cocaine are blocked along with blocking the release of dopamine.

Chemical Interactions Of Cocaine With Other Drugs
It has been seen that street dealers observed selling out drugs mix cocaine with some inert substances as cornstarch, talcum powder, or sugar. In order to increase addiction to this powder, additional drugs that are added and mixed with cocaine include procaine which is often known as a local anesthetic, amphetamine which is a well known stimulant. Some dealers as well as cocaine users also mix cocaine with heroine termed as speedball.

Cocaine And Alcohol
As compared to alcohol and cocaine addiction in an independent manner, studies suggest that cocaine and alcohol addiction together can cause much more damage to brain. Effects of these two include impulsive decision-making and much poor memory and performance in tests. It has been suggested by NIDA Director Dr. Alan I. Leshner that the way these two chemicals interact has important implications in drug abuse treatment.  It has been seen that these two chemicals make it hard for abusers to remember and learn concepts thereby reducing any chances of better treatment. Major effects on brain are compounded by the use of alcohol and cocaine together (NIH, 2000).


Section Three Risk Assessment of the Threat
It was estimated in 2005 by the help of National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) that at least 5 million current cocaine abusers in United States. Moreover, most distinguishing fact that has been observed in this case is that highest number of people belong to the age group of  18 to 25 as compared to adults thereby the teenagers are considered as the most vulnerable group.  Similarly, as compared to women, men consume cocaine at higher rates as compared to women.

Moreover since the late 1990s, it has been seen that use of cocaine has reduced in teenagers belonging to 10th, 11th and the 12th graders. In addition to this the survey has suggested that almost 2 million Americans have met  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria after depending and abusing cocaine (NIDA InfoFacts Cocaine, 2010). 

Conclusion
Cocaine has been now regarded as one of the most addictive drugs as it is one of the most challenging. It is observed that treating cocaine abusers is difficult because of lack of concentration and attention deficit and these abusers add up to higher number of treatment dropouts. Thereby studies carried out in order to look into this and it has been seen that drugs and compounds that can block dopamine receptors in brain are more efficient in cocaine treatment thereby increasing memory response thereby increasing efficiency in treatments.

A. Company Name 
    The laboratories of the Departments of Chemistry  Biochemistry and Biology at Delaware Valley College (DVC).

B. Company Address
    700 East Butler Avenue, Doylestown, Pennsylvania 18901.

C. Approximate Number of Employees
    The Department of Chemistry  Biochemistry employs about eight faculty members.

D. Organization or Management Scheme of Company (describe briefly, particularly with respect to your position in the hierarchy)
    The faculty members at the Department of Chemistry  Biochemistry include Dr. Karen McPherson, Department Chair of the Departments of Chemistry  Biochemistry and Mathematics  Physics Dr. William Stevens, who teaches organic chemistry Dr. Kenneth Dedeian, who teaches inorganic chemistry Mr. Ronald Petruso, who also teaches organic chemistry Dr. Blake, who teaches instrumental and analytical chemistry Dr. Henry Luftman, who teaches physical chemistry Dr. Benjamin Rusiloski, Dean of Business, Education, Arts and Science, responsible for overseeing all academic-related matters, including program development, evaluation, faculty development, strategic planning and budgeting and Dr. Yun Li, who teaches biochemistry.

E. Name, Title, and Telephone Number of Your Supervisor
    Ms. Katherine Rollison, Campus Employment Supervisor for Chemistry at DVC, telephone number (215) 345-1500 ext. 4929.

F. Description of the Type and Purpose of the Company
    DVC is a private four-year college with roots in agriculture, offering agriculture-related majors such as crop science as well as business administration and chemistry.

II.    Your Position
A. Title
    Student assistant, tasked with coordinating laboratory set-ups for laboratory activities in general chemistry, biochemistry, and organic chemistry, as well as sundry other tasks, under the supervision of Mr. Petruso and then Ms. Rollins. I also spent some of my time volunteering around the campus under the encouragement of Mr. Petruso.

B. Training NeededReceived (skills acquired)
    I was trained in the proper protocol established by the college for reporting broken and damaged equipment. I was also drilled on the safety procedures for emergency situations and injuries in the laboratory, and I was acquainted as to the location and use of laboratory equipment, safety equipment and supplies.

C. Your Responsibilities and Role in the Company
    As a student assistant, I had several responsibilities in the laboratories at DVC. Foremost of those responsibilities was ensuring the safety of the students in the laboratory, viz. I made sure alongside the instructor that the students wear safety goggles whenever they perform their activities in the laboratory and I saw to it that only the necessary chemicals and equipment were made available to students, to minimize the risk of improper or dangerous mixing of chemicals, and that all chemicals were placed under fume hoods. As a student assistant, it was also my responsibility to make sure that the laboratories run smoothly and efficiently. In this role, I check and replace damaged, worn-out and broken equipment made sure that the laboratory drawers to be used in a particular session were well-stocked with the necessary equipment and unlocked, while also making sure that drawers not in use were kept closed put away unnecessary equipment conducted spot checks before, during and after the course of an activity to see to it that reagents were put back in place in the fume hood in an orderly manner, and that the benchtops were clean and the de-ionized water jugs were kept full at the end of each activity calibrated the balances before and after a laboratory session and seeing to it that the balance area was kept clean kept all experiments for General Chemistry I and II well organized and labeled all items used in an experiment in accordance to the guidelines set by the American Chemical Society (ACS) saw to it that the maintenance staff refill and make available paper towels, hand soap and detergent in the laboratory facilitated the tearing down of one lab after the completion of the activity and the subsequent set-up of the next lab and lastly familiarized myself with the experiments to be performed on a particular day and made myself available to the instructors and students for assistance. My other tasks in the laboratory include helping Dr. Dedeian test ideas and fix and tweak experiment procedures for General Chemistry Laboratory experiments and moving equipment, old, new and slightly used, around due to renovations in the facility. From June 13th onward, I worked with Dr. Dedeian and Mr. Petruso to set up all the scheduled labs for the summer. Because of this, I was involved in the setting up of two General Chemistry I and II labs and Organic Chemistry I and II labs that were used by about 100 students.

D. Evaluation of Skills Utilized
i. Administrative
    Being a simple student assistant, I exerted no administrative position on my colleagues in the laboratory, but I did enforce some administrative skill when dealing with supplies and maintenance in the laboratory. I estimate that I spent 5 per cent of my time honing this skill.

ii. Leadership
    I also did not exert any leadership position on my colleagues in the laboratory, but I had acted in the manner of a leader when volunteering myself to be of good service to the instructors and students when they needed help in finding equipment and supplies and carrying out procedures and instructions. I estimate that I also spent 5 per cent of my time honing this skill.

iii. Interpersonal
    As in a real work setting, I consider interpersonal skills to be an integral part of my job experience, since as a student assistant I function in the laboratory to assist other people to do their work in the laboratory safely and efficiently. The interpersonal kills I employed in the laboratory took a good amount of my time. This was exercised all the more because I struggle with interpersonal relationships, as I am a very quiet person and I do not socialize easily. I am by nature unsure of what to say and what are the right things to day. The exercise (or the improvement of) my interpersonal and communication skills together for the purposes of working well in the laboratory took probably around 50 per cent of the total hours I spent in the program.

iv. Communication
     My exercise of communication skills is largely intertwined with the exercise of my interpersonal skills. I am quiet by nature, and I get very nervous addressing large groups of people, but this had to be overcome for me to function well in the laboratory. The exercise (or the improvement of) my interpersonal and communication skills together for the purposes of working well in the laboratory took probably around 50 per cent of the total hours I spent in the program.

v. Self-management
    My self-management skills were also put to good use in the program. It took a good amount of discipline and mental alertness to fulfill my obligations as a student assistant, and I had to tap into a lot of my willpower to do all that was required and expected of me as a helper. I estimate 25 per cent of my time was utilized honing and using this skill.

vi. Communication (verbal and written)
    I also took care of some verbal and written formal communication in doing my work, like contacting the maintenance staff, for instance, although the most important as well as most of the communications were handled by the employed staff of the laboratory, as theyve handled these for far longer than I had and for other obvious reasons. I believe 5 per cent of my time was devoted to this skill.

vii. Organizational Knowledge
    My organizational knowledge of DVC strengthened in the period of time I worked in the laboratory, as I now have a more detailed understanding of the roles and functions of the people making up the Departments of Chemistry  Biochemistry. I believe 2 per cent of my time was allotted in this.

viii. Organizational StrategyTime Management
    Finally, my time management skills were put to the test in my job experience. For the duration of my work, I had learned how to parcel out my time to do my duties as quickly and efficiently as possible, while still leaving room for me to take care of my other businesses, a skill I believe I have cultivated quite successfully. I spent 8 per cent of my time working on my time management skills.

III.    Employment Environment
A. Wet Chemistry
i. What type of chemistry was taking place in the employment setting   
    The laboratories in DVC are teaching laboratories, and so the chemistry involved in my work were fairly basic and illustrative in purpose. The types of chemistry I encountered in my work setting were taken from laboratory topics in general chemistry, organic chemistry and biochemistry, and so include neutralization reactions, calorimetry, the qualitative analysis of ions, chromatography, and the chemistry and reactions of organic compounds.

ii. What types of chemicals did you utilize
    As a student assistant, I utilized most of the common reagent chemicals used in a teaching laboratory, including the strong acids (hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, etc.) and strong bases (sodium hydroxide), as well as many other reagents, such as solutions of transition metal compounds (copper (II) sulfate, potassium dichromate, etc.), organic solvents (cyclohexane, toluene, acetone, etc.), biological compounds (sugars, agar, proteins, etc.) and many more.

iii. What types of safety protocols and procedures were you utilizing  
    When working, I followed the usual safety protocols and appropriate behaviors in the laboratory that is taught to any beginner student in chemistry. Chief among these rules is the rule to Dress Appropriately to dress not in accordance to fashion or the weather but rather to protect oneself from chemicals, burns and other harm that may be encountered in the laboratory. Thus, when reporting to work I did not wear sandals, as well as contact lenses, short pants and skirts. I also tied my hair back and put on safety goggles and a lab coat. Another important rule I kept in mind throughout the employment program is to Read the Chemical Safety Information, and to make note of its recommendations for safe use and disposal of a particular chemical I was using. I also made sure I was acquainted with the Safety Equipment, Where They Are Placed and How to Use Them. Another important rule that is in line with our goal to make the laboratories greener is Never Casually Dispose of Chemicals Down the Drain, as these could pollute as well as cause accidents due to the unexpected reaction of chemical leftovers previously disposed in this manner. Some of the other protocols and procedures, such as Do Not Pipette by Mouth, Don t Taste or Sniff Chemicals, Don t Eat or Drink in the Lab and Don t Haphazardly Mix Chemicals, came as second nature to me due to the nature of my job in the laboratories but are nonetheless important, and so I took care to follow these rules.

iv. Did any of your DVC education (lecturelaboratory) assist you in carrying out your duties
    My education in DVC helped greatly in the performance of my duties, although most of my initial knowledge about proper behavior in the laboratory, as well as how to prepare stock chemical solutions by calculation and from given molecular formulas, labeling and weighing using an analytical balance, came from another school I previously attended where I took my General Chemistry subject.

B. Instrumental Analysis   
i. What type of equipment did you utilize in the performance of your job duties  What was its purpose
    I used basic equipment in my work as a student assistant in the laboratories at DVC I used analytical balances to accurately weigh reagents, volumetric flasks to accurately mix and dilute chemicals, and a fume hood to keep fumes from the chemicals from spreading around and beyond the classroom and so do harm to those who inhale it. I also wore safety goggles to protect my eyes from splashed liquids and fumes. The chemistry laboratories in DVC have sophisticated machines for instrumentation techniques like NMR, IR, and HPLC, but I did not use these, as these were individually set-up by instructors for their classes.

ii. How did the company maintain and ensure quality controlquality assurance of their equipment
    As mentioned earlier in this report, the laboratories in DVC are teaching laboratories, and so the concept of quality assurance as applied in an industrial setting is quite irrelevant to my work experience. What we did focus on was the risk management. We tried to strike a balance between simulating real events with real risks in the laboratory, in order to arm students with the information necessary for them to overcome these risks should they face it later on in their career, and assuring that unnecessary and injurious risks are avoided. Of my superiors, Mr. Petruso in particular felt strongly about risk, as he helped in establishing the safety protocols to be followed inside the laboratory. In his scheme, all the equipment in the DVC laboratories are tested first by the teachers and then by a professional company to conclusively ensure that no defective equipment is made available to students and are removed or replaced. In addition to this protocol, we made sure to anticipate and tackle the two types of risks the so-called static risk and dynamic risk. We countered static risks, which are easily spotted and are well-established to occur in a given situation, by referring to our own personal experiences as well as checking and refreshing our knowledge of policies, laboratory procedures and manuals, reference books, and federal, state and local standards, regulations, and laws. We tackled dynamic risks, which are harder to spot beforehand and may unexpectedly arise, by exercising a variety of engineering and administrative controls, such as increasing the space between people and hazardous equipment, using the least hazardous alternatives to equipment and chemicals used in an activity, posting signs and labels in the classroom, giving quizzes on laboratory safety to ensure that students know how to keep themselves safe within the laboratory, and developing and enforcing the safety rules to be followed by all persons within the laboratory. We also review the performed experiments on their safety and pedagogic effectiveness, and we made alterations to the experiment as needed to improve these two considerations. We do reviews on a periodic basis, to ensure that our existing controls and safety protocols are effective and to find out whether any modifications to these need to be done. The frequency of review depends on the frequency of changes being done to the experiment, changes in standards or government regulations, the age of existing apparatus, and the availability of better apparatus and instructional techniques.

iii. Did any of your DVC education (lecturelaboratory) assist you in carrying out your duties
    As stated in another part of this paper, my education and experience at DVC has contributed a great deal to the performance of my duties, though my initial knowledge on laboratory work came from a previous school.

C. Problems Encountered   

i. Were there any technical problems associated with your position
    Overall, I would assess my employment environment as being good and beneficial to my development as a graduating chemistry student. I did not encounter any technical problems associated with my position as a student assistant, as the technical problems that developed in my time working in the laboratory were effectively addressed by the professors, the maintenance staff, computer support, andor an outside company.

ii. Were there any personnelinterpersonal problems associated with your position (e.g. managerial or teamwork)
    The only problem I encountered in my position is interpersonal in nature, regarding my relationship with Ms. Rollison. Ms. Rollison set out to do so much in the laboratories. She was very organized, and she aimed to catalogue all the chemicals in the inventory and to make sure that all safety protocols were followed. As a boss, Ms. Rollison knew what she wanted and wanted it done in the way she wanted it to, tending at times to be very demanding and very hard to please. Two months prior to her arrival in the DVC laboratory set-up team in early August 2008, I was under the supervision of Dr. Dedeian and Mr. Petruso and had quite a lot of control over the laboratories, a position I enjoyed very much. However, when Ms. Rollison took over as my supervisor, I was to relinquish my former role and responsibilities and report directly to her. Her attitude toward me was distinctly unfriendly and our personalities clashed, which, along with my loss of patience and love for the job, served only to hinder me from accepting my revised position in the system. This led to my resigning from the laboratories in October 2008.

iii. Were there any philosophical problems associated with your position (e.g. ethics)
    I did not encounter ethical and other philosophical problems in my work, as my work did not involve animal testing or any other ethically challenged laboratory practices.

iv. How would you address the aforementioned problems (if present)
    Perhaps, given a second chance to address my problem with my former supervisor, I would have immediately left the job and not stay on for the Fall term. Perhaps I would have fared better had I chose this course of action.

IV.    Summary
A. What did you like best about the employment experience
    Perhaps the best thing about my working experience as a student assistant in the laboratories of DVC was the time when I worked in conjunction with Dr. Dedeian and Mr. Petruso to make sure that all scheduled laboratories for the remainder of the summer, June 13th onward, were properly set up. By my efforts, I helped ensure that all student laboratories were organized, structured and conducted according to college guidelines, something I believe would not have succeeded as much as it did without my assistance. Also, I made their work in the laboratory more convenient and less frustrating by making sure that all the materials they needed were available to them. I consider the setting up of the General Chemistry I and II laboratories as well as the Organic Chemistry I and II laboratories as highlights in my career in DVC.

B. What did you like least about the employment experience
    The least likeable aspect of my working experience was my interaction with Ms. Rollison, as elaborated in the last paragraph of Part III of this report. But as with all things, this bad experience taught me one valuable thing and that is the fact that I am fit to do more challenging work than setting up laboratories as I did in this employment experience.

C. Would you consider this type of work as your career  How applicable was the position to your anticipated career path  Did the position affect the goals you had set for yourself
    Much as I enjoyed my time working in the laboratories in DVC in the position I held, I believe that my anticipated career path is very different from this kind of laboratory work, and that ultimately my position at DVC is not at all applicable to the kind of job I want. Of course, my position served me well, teaching me to work in a laboratory environment, honing my ability in preparing chemicals, and instilling in me a greater sense of self-confidence. The position also affected the goals I had set for myself tremendously before I worked as a student assistant in DVC I planned to intern at a local hospital and then proceed to medical school after I graduated, but after taking this position, and particularly after the good and edifying interactions I have had with Mr. Petruso, my career goals have changed, and my visions for my career path are now very different. Because of this position, I will be taking an MSE in Biomedical Engineering in Purdue University this September, as well as an MBA in Indiana University via an online program.

D. Was this a successful companybusiness
    I consider DVC to be very successful. DVC is a school founded on the core values, with its staff fully embracing the College Mission of encouraging students to reach their full potential via quality education that emphasizes hands-on training, holistic development, and relevant education activities that foster citizenship, leadership and a sense of community. The success of DVC is widely acknowledged as it steadily climbs the U.S. News and World Report rankings of competitive schools.


E. Provide suggestions for the improvement of the companybusiness that you have not already provided in Section III.
    In the vein of further improving DVC for students, I propose that the nature of peer groups be improved, as well as the quality and quantity of interactions of students with faculty outside the realm of the classroom. I also propose more opportunities for challenging coursework be made more applicable and relevant in the students  lives. Improvements must be made in the university to further sharpen students  academic skills. All these, I believe, can be done by doing more and better undergraduate research, as well as by developing research skills. Doing this, I am sure, will put the college at an even better stead, both in the views of outsiders and the students who entrust their education and their future to it.

F. Evaluate your overall experience and where you are headed.
    I ll have to say that from my overall experience both in the classrooms and at work in the laboratories of DVC that I got a well-rounded education. I benefited greatly from working with Dr. Dedeian and Mr. Petruso, two individuals that I am very much indebted to for the knowledge and industry experience they have so generously shared with me they have taught me everything that I need to know to run a lab properly, efficiently and safely. My overall experience in DVC was positive and I m leaving with a wealth of knowledge. With this knowledge I plan to follow my new career path, starting with my plans to take an MSE in Biomedical Engineering in Purdue University this September, as well as an MBA in Indiana University via an online program.
i. How did this position fit in with your personal development plan

    Even though I would have preferred a research-oriented employment experience, my position in the laboratory at DVC has more than filled my expectations in my personal development plan. Any type of experience in the laboratory to exercise what I have learned in the classroom in a setting that is as close to actual work conditions as I could have in my present state as an inexperienced student is valuable. Due to my job experience, I found in me a need to build on my newly founded knowledge and gear it towards quality assurance and drug development fields.

ii. Analyze your current skills, looking at both what you learned at DVC and on the job.  Are they adequate to support your choice of career pathway

    As of my graduation I have learned how to use many sophisticated techniques and instrumentation methods, including NMR, IR, UV-Vis, Polarimetry, AA, GC, MS, and HPLC, from my previous courses. I think that with these skills I am more than adequately prepared in treading my choice of career pathway in quality assurance and drug development I have the technical skills that are required in order to run samples, and I already picked up the necessary job-related skills in my job training program, so I have a distinct competitive advantage over other applicants in a job I would want in the future.

iii. Critique both your strengths and your weaknesses.
    From my experience as a student assistant, I affirmed to myself that I am very thorough and a hard worker I don t stop until the job is done. I fix things that get broken with limited resources. I know how to get the job done fast and efficiently. My greatest limitation is perhaps my difficulty in expressing myself verbally. I also struggle at managing my workload, so that I usually end up taking on more work than I can handle. As a result I get easily stressed, and get less sleep than is good for me. My immune system is weak, thus presenting another obstacle in the performance of my work. In the period of my work, my job performance was uneven I performed very well from May through August and then my performance deteriorated significantly from September through October. I am slightly unhappy with my job performance, and the fact that I couldn t give the job my utmost attention due to personal problems only adds to my dissatisfaction.
iv. Based upon your job performance, indicate how you will increase your strengths and improve upon your weaknesses.

    From this experience, I will try in the future not to stress myself over the small things and I will try to get over my nervousness when speaking in front of groups of people. As for my strengths, which I think are very strong already, I suppose they can be improved by consistent attention to detail and by working as hard as I can push myself higher and further.

v. What is the primary benefit you see in the entire Employment Program experience
    The primary benefit that I see in the entire Employment Program experience is, of course, the simulated real-world experience it provides. It is not an actual workplace, yet all the same the student gets to practice what he or she is taught in class, allowing the student to apply the skills he or she learned and gain confidence and experience while doing so. Also, the Employment Program pushes the student to learn outside of the classroom and rely on his or her self to do things, as well as partake in the knowledge of other, more learned individuals in a manner different from learning things in textbooks.

vi. What one facet of the Employment Program experience would you like to see changed or improved

    To end this paper, one facet of the Employment Program experience I would like to see changed or improved upon is the quantity of hours needed to accomplish the Employment Program. I think that the required number of hours for the completion of the program should be increased back up to 960 hours, as 460 hours can be completed in just one summer, while it takes about two summers to properly pursue research in chemistry and biochemistry. The more knowledge the student obtains as an undergraduate the more marketable he or she is after graduation, I believe.

The treatment of the human diseases is based on the products derived from natural things such as plants, animals and minerals, and the allopathic medicine is the consequence of the scientific observations of the scientists coupled with their efforts to develop drugs over the years. The future of medicine will be a holistic one with a wise combination of natural and modern therauptic skills with which the patient will have maximum advantages. With the increasing incidents of depression, Alzheimers disease, liver disorders, and arthritis the effectiveness of the synthetic drugs became questionable. The inclination towards natural alternatives with minimum side effects have initiated for the researchers for a better natural alternatives. The present paper is an effort to find out a natural alternative for the depression, liver disorders and Alzheimers disease through a viable dietary supplement, which is possible through a wonderful compound the S-Adenosyl methionine, or SAMe.

S-Adenosyl methionine
Cantoni.G.L (1952) discovered S-adenosyl methionine through a reaction between ATP and Methionine with methionineadenosyl transferase as a catalyst. S- adenosyl methionine or SAMe is a compound that occurs naturally and it plays an important role in the metabolic processes of the body. SAMe is an important compound that occurs in all the types of tissues and fluids of the human body. The compound is produced endogenously from the amino acid methionine and Adenosine triphosphate or ATP.SAMe is an important donor of the methyl group that plays a key role in the enzymatic transmethylation reactions. These play an essential role in the biosynthesis of phospholipids and these phospholipids are important in maintaining the integrity of the cell membrane. (Najm.W.L,et.al, 2004)In the metabolic processes, it breaks down the compounds such as serotonin, dopamine, and melatonin. The compound shows its high activity with vitamin B12 and folate and the deficiency of these two vitamins reduce the activity of the compound. (Alpert JE, Mischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Fava M,2000)

The biochemical pathway of SAMe includes methylation since the compound is the principal source of methyl groups in the body. Anssulfuration is a process where the SAMe forms S-adenosylhomocysteine that can be converted to stathionine and then to cysteine and SO4 that is donated to the other metabolic intermediates. Aminopropylation is a pathway where the SAMe plays a key role in synthesizing polyamines that can eventually form and recycle methionine. (Bottiglieri T S, 2002).

Synthesis of SAMe
SAMe is synthesized from the amino acid L-methionine and Adenosien triphosphate or ATP mediated by the enzyme adenosylmethionine synthetase through a metabolic pathway namely one carbon cycle, and this pathway requires adequate concentrations of folate  and vitamin B12.(Mischoulon.D and Fava.M, 2002). SAMe is synthesized as a part of the multistep pathway in which includes vitamins folic acid and vitaminB12. The SAMe donates methyl groups for the reactions involved in the synthesis of the important neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.


Biological activity of SAMe
The SAMe compound is important for the survival and the function of the cell. It plays an important role in three cell functions that include transmethylation,  transsulfuration, and the polyamine synthesis. In the transmethylation reaction, the methyl group of the SAMe is accepted by wide variety of substrates that include DNA, phospholipids, and proteins. These reactions interfere in a large spectrum of processes that range from gene expression to the fluidity of the membranes. In transsulfuration process, the sulfur atom of the SAMe is converted to cysteine through a series of reactions and the cysteine becomes the precursor for taurine and a major cellular anti-oxidant, glutathione. Polyamines are required for the normal growth of the cell. It is now evident that SAMe plays an important role in the major tissue functions of the body. This compound is investigated as a therauptic agent in the treatment of a variety of clinical disorders. (Shelly.C.Lu,2000). Being a methyl donor SAMe modifies various methyl transferases that can modify DNA, RNA, histones, and the other types of proteins. SAMe serves as a cofactor for the nucleases like the type 1 restriction enzyme ECOK 1 that cannot restrict DNA in the absence of SAM.

Therauptic uses of SAMe
Many research studies have shown that SAMe helps in relieving the pain due to arthritis and it also helps in the treatment of depression. Researchers have observed that there is some possibility of using SAMe in the treatment of fibromyalgia, liver disease and Alzheimers disease.

(S-adenosylmethionine, 2009). Some research results have shown that there is some relationship between the SAMe and the Parkinsons disease, migraine headaches. A significant relationship was found between the levels of SAMe in the normal persons and the persons with Parkinsons disease.(Cheng.H et.al,1997). Decreased levels of SAMe were observed in the patients with neurological disorders such as Alzheimers disease.

Isolation of the compound SAMe
There are research reports of the isolation of SAMe from the yeasts. The concentration of the sulfonium compound in the cells is increased by exposing them to methionine, this is further extracted with the perchloric acid, chromatography and the precipitation with the phosphotungstic acid yields the product. The product has no impurities as detected by the conventional methods. (Shelenk.F and Depalma.R.E, 1957).

Altnernative applications and the commercial availability of SAMe for its alternative applications
 SAMe dictates the genetic processes such as replication, the fidelity of transcription and translation, mismatch repair, chromatin modeling, epigenetic modifications and imprinting, which are of great interest in the research aspects of cancer and aging. SAMe has the ability to bind to certain RNA structures namely riboswitches that are able to control transcription or translation, and by this way, the multiple gene expression can be regulated in a SAMe dependent manner and this opens up new avenues in gene control. One such example is the tetracycline dependent riboswitch that regulates the translation of reporter gene in yeast. The riboswitch responds to the tetracycline in the cell in a reversible manner. (Leonen.W.A.M, 2006). The subject of the alternative applications of SAMe is still in the research and the future research confirms its commercial applicability and availability.

Available forms of the compound
SAMe is available in enteric-coated tablets that are dependable, and stable in terms of the amount of the compound in the pills. It is suggested that the tablets should be stored in the cool and dry place but not in the refrigerator. The tablets should be kept in the blister pack.

Usage
The enteric-coated tablets are more readily absorbed by the body and are chemically stable for longer periods. The butanedisulfonate salts are preferred to the tosylate salts because of their stability and the bioavailability. (S-adenosyl methionine, 2009). The compound is best absorbed with empty stomach and it is effective when consumed with a plenty of water. It is the recommendation of the clinicians that the drug should be taken orally with vitamin B12, folic acid, methionine,

Side effects
The drug has potential side effects and it is advisable to consume it along with the dietary supplements under the supervision of a knowledgeable physician. The side effects include nausea, dry mouth, gas, diarrhea, headache, anxiety, and feeling of elation, restlessness and insomnia. The higher doses may cause mania and it is not recommended for the pregnant and breast feeding women. The people with bipolar disorder may worsen manic episodes with the consumption of SAMe.(SAMe,2009)

Structural activity studies of SAMe
The source of a diverse chemical groups used for the modification and the biosynthesis of almost every class of biomolecules is S-adenosyl methionine. A large class of S-adenosyl methionine-dependent  methyltransferases mediate the transfer of the methyl group and researchers have focused their studies on their structure-function. SAMe binding proteins are about 22 distinct sequences of structural families of proteins that perform a variety of reactions. Some of these are ancient and some more have been invented later on in the evolution process. The known SAM-binding proteins belong to 15 families or folds,  that comprise at least 20 more sequence families. 1- Rosamann fold, 2-Metsynthase activating domain, 3-Porphyrin C-methyl transferase , 4-SPOUT methyltransferase, 5-SET domain methyl transferase, 6- isoprenylcystiene carboxyl methyl transferase , 7-flourinating enzyme, 8- t-RNA ribosyltransferase isomerase (QueA), 9-SAM decarboxylase, 10- SAM-synthetase, 11-ACC synthase and DAPA synthase, 12- N-acyl-homoserine lactone synthase, 13- Met-repressor, 14-CBS-domain, 15-SAM-dependent radical. All these folds belong to a group four large structural classes(Murzin AG, et al,1995), eventhough there is a distinct excess of ,  and especially - folds. It is broad picture when fold classes and molecular functions are compared, where there is a complex interplay between the sequence divergence and functional convergence in the evolution of SAM-binding proteins and SAM-dependent molecular functions.

Toxic effects of SAMe
SAMe has many functions with regard to liver, that includes serving as a precursor for cystiene 1 of 3-aminoacids of glutathione the major physiologic mechanism against the oxidative stress. The accumulation of methionine because of decreased activity of the enzyme reduces the activity of SAM, which is responsible for liver disorders. This happens when there is a deficiency of nutritional supplements.(Charles.S.L,2002)

Summary and conclusions
Recent years have witnessed a surge of popularity for natural or alternative medications however, there is limited information on the effectiveness of these medicines. Research on the effectiveness of SAMe is better studied among the natural remedies. It is synthesized endogenously with the help of methionine and ATP, and being a methyl donor it is involved in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters in the brain.  Researchers have postulated that the compound has some anti-depressant properties and the oral doses of around 200-1600mgd of it are more effective than placebo. In addition to this, the compound may also protect the body from the negative effects of the Alzheimers disease. When compared to the other anti-depressants, SAMe is supposed to be safe, tolerable with low side effects. It can be safely used as a dietary supplement along with the vitamins such as VitaminB12 and folate.

Limonene is found in lemon, orange, caraway and other oils. It is used to prepare terpin hydrate, used medicinally as a treatment for coughs. The commercial preparation involves addition of two moles of water to limonene in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid. Propose a structure for terpin hydrate, explaining your reasons.

TERPIN HYDRATE
    Limonene is an alkene. When reacted with water in the presence of Sulfuric acid, it is leads to the formation of an alcohol. The protonation of the double bond of the alkene occurs first to form a carbocation. The water molecule then acting as an electron lone pair donor, bonds with the carbocation to form the protonated alcohol.   Finally, a proton transfer occurs in as a water molecule accepts a proton from the protonated alcohol to leave the free alcohol product while reforming the catalytic oxonium ion H3O.  The orientation is Markonikov since the proton has added to the least highly substituted end, and the hydroxyl to the most highly substituted end (Atkinson  Hibbert, 2000).
Methylpentynol, an anxiolytic drug, has the following structure


Name the compound by the IUPAC system
Answer 3-methylpent-1-yn-3-ol
Indicate a suitable chemical test to demonstrate the presence of the alkyne group.
    When treated with Ammoniacal Silver Nitrate solution (Tollens reagent), it will form a white precipitate of Silver acetylide.
C6H10O Ag(NH3)2 OH---------------- C4H8 -CCAgH2O2NH3   
Formulate the product of, and provide a mechanism for, the reaction of Methylpentynol with dilute aqueous acidic mercuric chloride solution.
    The hydration and isomerization of 3-methylpent-1-yn-3-ol  forms (1) 3-methyl-3-hydroxy-1-pentanone and (2) 3-methyl-2pentene-1-one (McMurry, 2010).


Novocaine, a local anaesthetic, is a compound of molecular formula C13H20N2O2. It is insoluble in water and dilute NaOH, but soluble in dilute HCl. Upon treatment with sodium nitrite and HCl and then with 2-naphthol, a highly coloured solid is formed. When Novocaine is boiled with aqueous NaOH, it slowly dissolves. The alkaline solution is shaken with diethyl ether and the layers are separated. Acidification of the aqueous layer causes the precipitation of a white solid A continued addition of acid causes A to redissolve. Upon isolation A is found to have the molecular formula C7H7NO2. Evaporation of the ether layer leaves a liquid B of molecular formula C6H15NO. B dissolves in water to give a solution that turns red litmus blue. Treatment of B with acetic anhydride gives C, molecular formula C8H17NO2, which is insoluble in water and dilute NaOH but soluble in dilute HCl. Give structures for A, B, C and Novocaine, indicating the mechanisms of the reactions involved.

    In this experiment, this mixture may be readily separated by virtue of the fact that whereas aniline will react with HCl in water, the benzoic acid will react with sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in water, and the chlorobenzene is simply insoluble in water.
    Thus, when the mixture is shaken with aqueous Hcl, the amine will be removed into the aqueous layer as its ammonium salt, whereas dichlorobenzene and benzoic acid will remain dissolved in the ether. The benzoic acid then can be extracted as its sodium salt by extracting the ether layer with aqueous NaHCO3
After separation of the aqueous and etheral layers, the aniline can be regenerated by basification with aqueous NaOH, while the aminobenzoic acid can be regenerated from its sodium salt by acidification with dilute acid (Cairns, 2000).
One of the reactions in the metabolism of glucose is the isomerisation of citric acid to isocitric acid. The isomerisation is catalysed by the enzyme aconitase. Propose a reasonable mechanism for this isomerisation.
    Isomerisation of citric acid to isocitric acid is the second reaction of the citric acid cycle. It is one in which the hydrogen and the hydroxyl groups change place. The enzyme aconitase requires Fe2 for this reaction. Citric acid, a symmetrical (achiral) compound, is then converted to isocitric acid an a chiral compound, a molecule that cannot be superimposed on its mirror image.    Isocitric acid has four possible isomers, but only one of the four is produced by this reaction.
    Aconitase can select one end of the citric acid molecule instead of the other. Aconitase forms an unsymmetrical three point attachment to the citric acid molecule. The first reaction is the removal of a water molecule from the citrate to produce cis-aconitate. In the second reaction, water is added back to the cis-aconitate to produce isocitrate (Campbell  Farrel, 2009).
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing boiling point. Explain the basis for your answer.
1.CH3CH2CH3  2. CH3CH2Cl 3.CH3CH2OH      
    Ethanol has a higher boiling point due to the Hydrogen bonds between OH which require a lot of energy to break, followed by chloroethane which has the carbon-halogen which are polar and have van der Waals dipole-dipole attraction. This is because the electron pair is pulled closer to the halogen atom than the carbon. This is because chlorine is more electronegative than carbon. Finally, propane has covalent bonds which are bound together with Van Der Waal forces that are relatively strong but not as strong as the Hydrogen and polar bonds  (Clark, 2003).
5-Hydroxyhexanal readily forms a cyclic hemiacetal. Draw the structure of this hemiacetal. Would you expect this hemiacetal to be stable Explain your answer.

    It is not very stable as stability of hemiacetal depends on the number and strength of radicals attached to the quinone ring. It has only one quinone C(O) group (Remsen  Rouillu, 1895).
A solution of -D-glucose has a specific rotation of 112 a solution of -D-glucose has specific rotation of 19. On mutarotation, the specific rotation of each solution changes to an equilibrium value of 52. Calculate the percentage of -D-glucose in the equilibrium mixture.
19y112(100-y)40100.
19y(11200-112y)4000
19y-112y4000-11200
-93y-7200
Y77.41
    The specific rotations for -D-glucose and -D-glucose are about 112 and 18, respectively. It will be apparent that the product of the present invention, at 40, is mainly -D-glucose and that the commercially available products are mainly -D-glucose. An approximate calculation suggests that the present product is, in fact, 75 to 80 -D-glucose (Crystalline glucose and process for its production United States Patent 4342603 ) (Fuson  Snyder, 1942).
Raffinose is the most abundant trisaccharide in nature and has the structure below.

Name the three monosaccharide units in raffinose.
Answer Galactose, fructose and glucose.
There are two glycosidic links in raffinose. What type are they
    Raffinose consists of D-galactose, D-glucose, and D-fructose with the galactose and glucose linked by an -1,6 glycosidic bond, and the fructose linked to the glucose by an , -1,2-glycosidic bond. 
Would you expect raffinose to be a reducing sugar
    It is not a reducing sugar since there are no open chain forms possible. A sugar is only a reducing sugar if it has an open chain with an aldehyde or a ketone group (Chow  Halver, 1980).

Examine the structures of vitamins A, D3, E and K2. From their structural formulae would you expect them to be more soluble in water or olive oil
    Solubility is affected by polarity of the solute and solvent molecules. Polar solute molecules will dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solute molecules will dissolve in non-polar solvents.  There is a definite connection between structure and solubility.  The fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms that have similar electronegativities, therefore non polar. This causes them to be soluble in non polar materials such as olive oil which is also largely composed of Carbon and Hydrogen but not soluble in polar solvents such as water (Zumdahl, 2004, p. 854).
b) Would you expect them to be soluble in blood plasma. Explain your answers.
    The vitamins A, D, E, and K are not soluble in plasma. The vitamins that are soluble in blood plasma must either be soluble in water (the main component of blood plasma), or be solubilised by some other particles (e.g., proteins) that are carried in the blood (Casidy  Frey, 1999).

Calculate the saponification value of pure stearin, molecular weight 890.
If MMean molecular weight and KSaponification value then, M56100K
Therefore for stearin 5610089063.033 (Benedikt, 2007).
Glutathione is one of the most common small peptides in animals, plants and bacteria.
Name the three amino acids in this tripeptide
Answer Cysteine, Glutamic acid and Glycine

What is unusual about the peptide bond formed between the first two amino acids of this tripeptide
    The amide bond in the peptides should be made in the order that the amino acids are written. The amine end (N terminal) of an amino acid is always on the left, while the end (C terminal) is on the right. In the case of Glutathione, the oxidising agents react with the SH group of Cysteine of the glutathione (Tsen  Tappel, 1958)
c) Write an equation for the reaction of two molecules of glutathione with oxygen.
4GSHSeO-3             GSSGGS-Se-SG2OH-H2O (1)
2OH-GS-Se-SGO2                         GSSGSeO3H2O (2)
Which of the following amino acids will migrate towards the () electrode and which towards the (-) electrode on electrophoresis firstly at pH 6.0 and secondly at pH 8.6
Tyrosine       arginine       cysteine       aspartic acid       asparagine       histidine
    At any pH above the isoelectric point, the molecule will have a net negative charge and move towards the anode. Similarly, at pHs below the isoelectric point, the molecule will have a net positive charge and move towards the cathode (Davies, 2002).
    At PH 6.O Tyrosine Cysteine, aspartic acid, and asparagines will move towards the anode (-) while Arginine and Histidine will move towards the cathode () (Davies, 2002).
    At ph 8.6, Tyrosine Cysteine, aspartic acid Histidine and asparagine will move to anode (-) while Arginine will move towards the cathode () (Davies, 2002).
At high temperatures, nucleic acids become denatured, that is they unwind into disordered single strands. Account for the fact that the higher the content of G-C base pairs, the higher the temperature required to denature a given molecule of DNA.
    G (guanine) and C (cytosine) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding whereas A (adenine) bonds specifically with T (thymine). The GC base pair has three hydrogen bonds, whereas the AT base pair has only two as a consequence, the GC pair is more stable. This stability, however, is not caused solely by Hydrogen bonds but is mainly due to stacking interaction. DNA with high GC content undergo autolysis, thereby reducing the longevity of the cell. Denaturing the stable GC pair will therefore require high temperatures (Garrett  Grisham, 2008).


An important drug in the chemotherapy of leukaemia is 6-mercatopurine, a sulphur analogue of adenine. Draw a structural formula for 6-mercaptopurine. How do you think it exerts its anti-cancer action

    6- mercaptopurine forms yellow prisms of a monohydrate form when removed from an aqueous solution, becoming anhydrous at 140 degrees centigrade and decomposing at 313-314 degrees centigrade.
    6- mercaptopurine is a DNA antimetabolite. This means that it mimics a substance necessary in DNA synthesis necessary.
    6- mercaptopurine is converted to the corresponding ribonucleotide in the body,. 6- mercaptopurine ribonucleotide is a inhibits  the conversion of a compound called inosinic acid to adenylic acid. Without which DNA cannot be synthesized. Each component of DNA  A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine), and C (cytidine), is linked in turn to deoxyribose, a sugar.
    6- mercaptopurine also works by being incorporated into nucleic acids as thioguanosine, rendering the resulting nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) unable to direct proper protein synthesis (Feist, n.d.).

Personalized medicine An Introduction
What is personalized medicine Any prescription of drugs today by doctors and physicians all over the world is based on the diagnosis of the patients condition and a few generalizations as to what those symptoms mean, which have been developed from experience. However, the few minutes the doctor spends with us, the information he receives based on the symptoms we communicate to him, and the ones he gleans from various tests performed give him only a decent idea of the kind of ailment we are suffering from. Personalized medicine is based on the fact that the diseases are heterogeneous in their effect on humans that is, they differ from person to person in their causes, rates of progression, and their response to drugs. Several disorders which were earlier thought to be alike are now considered distinct, such as rheumatism or apoplexy, based on more information which showed the differences. For example, recent discoveries in the molecular pathology of cancer have shown the differences in the gene expressions of a variety of tumors.1 (Waring, 2001).  As technology advances, the doctors receive more and more information, which aids them in understanding the disorders and to treat them more effectively. Personalized medicine only takes this a step further. It is anticipated that, from certain new genetic, genomic, imaging, etc. technologies, doctors may in fact be able to individualize treatment for patients depending upon their exact condition. This suggests necessary changes to their lifestyle to even prevent future onset of certain diseases. Treatments will now be targeted at the root cause of a disease and not just the symptoms. This is based on the hope that the quick progress of technologies will bring an unprecedented amount of information for the doctor, and the semi-empirical nature of the current medical practices will be transformed.

There are several advantages of personalized medicine, both for the pharmaceutical industry and for the patients and doctors. For the pharmaceutical industry, it will reduce the timelines and costs of clinical trials, and will lead to product differentiation in the market place. For the patients, it will increase the probability of curing a disease with a particular drug, prevent unwanted side-effects, and on the whole, lead to better health and healthcare.2 Not only will it benefit the patients since the treatment will be so much more effective, it will also help save the millions of dollars that go into the development and testing of just one new drug in the world today.

Pharmacogenomics and Personalized medicine  Overview and Advantages
Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics are two overlapping disciplines, the latter being more broad-based than the former. Pharmacogenomic investigations use latest sequencing technologies to simultaneously study the structures and expressions of many genes or gene patterns. The growth of this field was stimulated by the discovery that gene expressions are variable, and that they can be modified due to a number of factors. A product of one gene might alter the expression of the others, or there might be environmental factors including sleep, emotions, diet, etc.3  Most of the common non-infectious diseases are multifactorial and have complex genetic causes hence, a similar looking disease in two humans may actually be due to different genes.4 The methods of pharmacogenomics can be used to study these disease-causing genes which control the cause, effect, and response to treatment of any organism to a disease. Thus, doctors may be able to target the therapy based on the particular gene that is causing the disease in a particular organism, that is, personalize the medicine that is offered. Also, pharmacogenomics could also be used to predict the onset of certain diseases. For example, cholesterol testing is used to understand a patients risk for heart disease and has been used for the development of cholesterol-reducing drugs called statins. Similarly, genomics could provide new genetic andor protein biomarkers in blood to identify a patients risk for developing a disease. An example is that patients are now being screened for a new CCR5 antagonist, maraviroc, to identify whether a strain of HIV uses this to access healthy cells.5 Figure 1 shows various stages of a disease where pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine could help an individual.

There are already several cases where pharmacogenomics is used to supplement the choice of the drug to be offered to a patient. For example, if the drug is known to be metabolized by a genetically variable enzyme, then unwanted side-effects of the drug in a patient can be avoided by pretesting this enzyme in a patient and by administering the drug only when the results are normal. The most commonly used drugs are generally safe thus, such pretesting is not usually performed. On the other hand, if the drug to be administered is known to be toxic, such pretesting can be extremely useful. For instance, the enzyme thiopurine-methyl-transferase (TPMT) metabolizes the immunosuppressive drug azathioprine which is used to cure Crohns disease.6 If the drug is not properly metabolized due to a lack of the enzyme, it is converted into a toxic thioguanine nucleotide. Thus, it is obviously useful for the patient to pretest the activity of TPMT before this particular drug is administered. This issue of drug safety makes a particularly important case for pharmacogenomics. For instance, the Rofecoxib drug, developed by Merck and approved by FDA, was later withdrawn by the company due to increasing evidence linking rofecoxib administration to the risk of suffering a heart attack.7  Such drugs could be tested for their effects on genes, and such incidents could be prevented.
In order to achieve personalized medicine, we first have to collect the data from each individual and consider the effects of single-gene mutations. Such a collection of data will require tremendous effort on a very large scale. However, it has also been found that since there is less genetic variation in certain groups as compared to others, analyzing the genes of one person belonging to a particular group may be useful in determining the appropriateness of a particular drug for his entire community. For instance, deficiency of the multidrug metabolizing enzyme CYP2D6 differs widely between human races.3 Another example is the new drug BiDil which is used to treat heart failure and has been found to be effective only for people of African origin.8 These examples demonstrate how pharmacogenomics based testing can be used to administer more accurate drugs and make the treatment more effective.

Challenges for Personalized medicine
There are two major reasons as to why the move towards personalized medicine has been slower than expected the first one is the limitations of genetic predictions itself. There are only very few pharmacogenomics based target therapies available today. Even the most common test, Trasutuzmab (Herceptin, Genentech) has been used only for a very narrow, monogenic type of disease. The limitation is that most diseases are multifactorial and the genotype-phenotype relations are much more complex and difficult to predict, which gives us a very limited number of diseases that can be understood individually.9 Also, disease genes have proved much more difficult to find and validate than previously expected after the understanding of the human genome sequence. Several studies claim discovery of disease genes which are responsible for most of the diseases, and variations in the gene which modify the individual responses to that particular disease and to its treatment.

The shift towards personalized medicine has also been slower mostly due to a lack of sufficient economic incentives. Most of the studies which are usually small-scale tests   unfortunately fail when a larger population is considered. Also, even if a biomarker for a particular disease is identified, only the first step has been accomplished. The biomarker also has to provide sufficient and good quality information for it to be clinically useful. It is evident that large scale studies have to be performed before we validate that genes and disease onset and medication-response are correlated, and if so, by how much. The basic research that is essential to validate a particular biomarker as an accurate predictor is also very high. Such a large scale collection and analysis of data is bound to be expensive. It is clear that the government will have to provide economic incentives for the companies and research institutions to develop pharmacogenomics based tests for various diseases and to study the correlation between the genes and the diseases in large sections of the population. There is also the factor of time. Given the complex nature of the relationships between the biomarkers, the disease, and the multifactorial nature of most of the diseases, the development and testing of a new biomarker will take several years to understand and several more years before the required certifications can be met and before it comes out as a product in the market. There is also the big challenge of convincing both the physicians and the patients to shift to objective, marker-based health care. Table 1 summarizes the various challenges faced by pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine.

    It is clear that pharmacogenomics-based personalized medicine has to face several challenges, both scientific and economic, before it manifests as the norm of medical practice. We need to still generate a large amount of knowledge about accurate biomarkers and the correlations between gene and disorder before successful applications of the same can be developed. However, although the promise of personalized medicine seems far off, there is clear evidence that the favor is turning towards precise marker-based treatments rather than the traditional trial and error practice of medicine. Diagnosis is the foundation of medicine, and new diagnostics will provide the foundation for personalized medicine.10 With a concerted effort from the research institutions, the companies and the government, we might see this happening on a regular basis sometime in the near future.

Properties of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most abundantly and commonly found element in the universe. Sun and stars comprise hydrogen in most quantities. Moreover, it is the simplest element of all, and the lightest. Around 90 percent of atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms.

Hydrogen was first and foremost discovered in 1766 by the English chemist Henry Cavendish. Henry Cavendish was the first person ever to discover that hydrogen gas was a substance on its own rather than a combination of substances.

     The hydrogen atom is made of one proton, one electron, and no neutrons, being the only element that exists without neutrons. It has a symbol of H and has an atomic number of 1. Its atomic mass is 1.00794 amu. The melting point for hydrogen is -259.14 C and the boiling point is -252.87 C. It is a non-metal with a crystal structure being hexagonal. It is a colorless and odorless gas which at room temperatures and pressures occurs as diatomic molecules, H2.
The basic isotope of hydrogen is called Protium and the other two isotopes are called Deuterium and Tritium, being the only element whose isotopes is given names.

Hydrogen is such an essential element as without it life on this universe would not exist. It is for a fact third most common element in the human body and one of the six very widespread found elements (Rigden,2002)..
Hydrogen Compounds
Water
H2O is a very common hydrogen compound having a structure of H - O  H. Oxygen atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a molecule of water. Oxygen atom forms the negative centre due to large electro negativity, while each of the hydrogen atoms acquires a partial positive charge. Two hydrogen bonds can each oxygen atom form.

Its molecules are abundantly found on the earth as 70 of the Earth is comprised of water. It can be found in forms of gas, liquid and solid. At normal room temperatures it is odorless, colorless and tasteless.

Ammonia

Ammonia that has a formula of NH3 can be found as a strong smelling liquid or a gas. In a molecule of ammonia, an electronegative atom of nitrogen is tightly bonded to three hydrogen atoms. Each of three H-atoms acquires a partial positive charge whereas the nitrogen atom forms a negative site of the molecule. The molecules of ammonia are associated with H-bonds.

When organic matter decomposes a tiny amount of ammonia is formed. Most of the ammonia that is used is produced commercially through joining of four atoms by force(Rigden,2002)..

Hydrogen Sulphide
It is a compound with a formula H2S.
Hydrogen sulfide is found naturally in some mineral waters as well as in the volcanic gases. During decay of animal matter is when it is formed. It is found in many fuels, like in the crude oil and natural gas. It also is obtained as a byproduct in the refining of these above mentioned fuels. However, it is made artificially by either treating a metal sulfide with an acid or by having a reaction of hydrogen gas with sulfur vapors (Rigden, 2002).

Hydrogen Fluoride
It is a chemical compound with a formula HF. Hydrogen atom is bonded to fluorine to get the chemical hydrogen fluoride. Long zigzag chains of the H-F molecules are found in a solid form of it.
It is from unusually strong hydrogen-bond interactions that in liquid and gas form, the formation of it starts happening. By heating calcium fluoride with sulfuric acid to produce the gas by cooling which could be then condensed, hydrogen fluoride is as a result produced commercially.

Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric Acid, a gaseous inorganic compound, is a solution in water of hydrogen chloride (HCL). It is a strong and corrosive acid. In a dilute form it is found in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is involved in the development of  HYPERLINK httpwww.answers.comtopicpeptic-ulcer t _top peptic ulcers as well (Rigden,2002).

Suphuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is a chemical compound with a formula of H2SO4. Sulphuric acid has a tetrahedral structure along with having a molecule in a hexavalent form.

It is usually colorless, odorless, extremely corrosive and a very oily liquid. It is artificially made by dissolving in water sulfur trioxide. Sulfuric acid in a pure form is not found naturally on the Earths surface (Rigden,2002).

Hydrogen Chloride
Hydrogen chloride having a formula of HCL is a colorless and a very poisonous gas with a very pungent smell. It consists of diatomic molecules, having one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom joined together by a covalent bond.

By the reaction of sulfuric acid and sodium chloride as well as of hydrogen with chlorine gases it is prepared artificially and furthermore also found as a byproduct of organic chemicals which are chlorinated.

Nitric Acid
It is a strong acid having a formula of HNO3. It is a transparent or yellowish and a fuming corrosive liquid. It has the structure of single and double bonds to non-acidic oxygen atoms. It is mostly produced commercially through the Ostwald process. The process is such that ammonia is oxidized with air so that nitrogen dioxide is produced which is in turn dissolved into water to form 60 percent nitric acid.

Glycerol
Glycerol is an organic compound which has a formula of C3H8O3. It is a clear and transparent organic compound being a type of alcohol. Glycerol is present in animal as well as vegetable oils. It is obtained commercially as a byproduct of fatty acids which are hydrolyzed from oils. It is produced commercially by cracking petroleum into propylene. As natural glycerol supplies are limited glycerol can also be obtained when sugar is fermented.

Methanol
Methanol also known as methyl alcohol has a formula of CH3OH and is a transparent and a flammable liquid. The Lewis structure of Methanol is shown below
H-S-H

It is monohydric  HYPERLINK httpwww.answers.comtopicalcohol t _top alcohol. It tends to melt at 97.8C and boil at 67C. Methanol is mostly produced commercially. However it is also produced naturally in the  HYPERLINK httpwww.answers.comtopicanaerobic-organism t _top anaerobic  HYPERLINK httpwww.answers.comtopicmetabolism t _top metabolism of many varieties of bacteria, and is everywhere in the environment. Thus, there is a small fraction of methanol vapor in the atmosphere (Gupta, 2008).

Use of Hydrogen in Everyday Life
Hydrogen is used for various purposes. It is used widely in balloons. As it is the lightest of gases it is lighter than air it results in balloons flying up. It is also used by meteorologists in weather balloons. These balloons approx 2 m in diameter fly up into the atmosphere attaching instruments to them that record atmospheric condition which is highly useful to them.

Hydrogen is used in extracting metals from their ores. For example, tungsten, that is used in the making of filaments. When heated, hydrogen separates tungsten and water to give us pure tungsten alone, from its form of tungsten oxide in which it is originally extracted.

Hydrogen is also used in rocket fuel. NASA uses liquid hydrogen to fuel the booster rockets of the space shuttle.

For portable cell batteries hydrogen is used which is used in laptops and cell phones. These fuel cells are also used in electric motors which are becoming more and more popular. These cars are higher priced due to the high cost of producing these batteries but the use of hydrogen is highly environmental friendly as no harmful gas emission are let out.

Uses of Hydrogen Compounds
Ammonia
As it is easily mixable with water, it is used widely in cleaners. Toilet bowl cleansers, oven foam, window sprays, wax removers and other household cleaners contain about 5-10 of ammonia. Liquid form of it is used in etching of metals like  aluminum and copper, for dissolving other elements in labs and also to refrigerate rooms or trucks. It is also used in fertilizing of crops. In the synthesizing processes of manufacturing of plastics, pesticides and dyes, ammonia is commonly used. These solutions are used in chemical manufacture to clean, bleach and deodorize (David, 2008).

Ethanol
In everyday life the compound ethanol containing hydrogen has a variety of uses. It is a major component of paints and varnishes which are consumed widely and in large quantities on daily bases. It is also used in alcoholic beverages for drinking purposes and in transparent soaps as well. It is also a substitute for petrol which could be very useful and have an extremely wide use as a result. Moreover, it is also used as a fuel in lamps that work on spirits as well as in stoves and very importantly in scientific apparatus such as thermometers.

Glycerol
Glycerol has vast and varied uses including being used in emulsifiers, stabilizers in baked products, softening agents, plasticizer, ice creams, and tobacco. On the other hand it is also used lotions, mouthwashes, medicines especially cough medicines. Moreover, it is also used as a protecting agent for freezing of human tissues as well as the red blood cells of a human body. Glycerol has major uses like being used in printing inks and in antifreeze elements and also as a nutrient in fermentation.

Sulphuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is a very widely used chemical in the production of a major number of manufactured goods. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers and drugs as well as in paints and explosives. Super phosphate is also used is the production of fertilizers. For the production of other chemicals like hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, sulphuric acid is used. Another major use is in the petroleum industry where it is used to wash impurities from gasoline. It is used as a dehydrating agent, laboratory agent and even for stain removing purposes and pickling of steel. It is also used as an electrolyte in storage batteries mostly used in motor vehicles.

Hydrogen Fluoride
Its largest use is in the making of fluorine included refrigerants. Also in the preparation of organic fluorocarbon compounds it has been having an increasingly important use. Chemicals like hydrofluoric acid also require the use of hydrogen fluoride. It is also used in the refining of uranium and aluminum. It used in the refining or uranium for use of a nuclear fuel. In manufacturing organic chemicals and stainless steel, hydrogen fluoride is widely used.

Introduction to Molecular Self-Assembly
Molecular self-assembly is an evolving methodology that aims at producing desired structures of simple molecules and supramolecular specimen by fabricating them using nanotechnology. The desired structures can be formed due to their property of shape-complement. In this method the molecules adopt a distinct arrangement without regulation or management from an outside source.
Self-assembly is defined as the autonomous organization of components into patterns or structures without human intervention. (12 Whitesides  Grzybowski 2002, p.2).

Self-assembling process is widespread throughout nature and technology ranging from the non-covalent association of organic molecules in solution to the growth of semiconductor quantum dots on solid substrates.
Challenges Faced
The technology had a difficult time to begin with as most of it was only theoretical and later on computer simulated. The practical demonstration was not easily possible and was not funded by many universities adding to the woes of the researchers. Self-Assembly has been a challenging area due to the very fact that it is not even possible to mimic the process that occur in the biological process that are happening around. Though they seem to be elementary reactions, the how-tos remain a puzzle.  (13 Whitesides n.d.).

Self assembly has gained wide spread interest due to several reasons
Humans are fascinated by the appearance of order from disorder.
Living cells have the ability to self-assemble.
Self-assembly is an important process of nanotechnology for making ensembles of nanostructures.
Self-assembly can also be applied in the fields of manufacturing and robotics
Advantages of self-Assembly
Synthetic chemistry which has evolved quite highs is used in the most critical part of fabrication using nano technology.
Existing biological examples which have developed complex functional structures provide an unending set of real time data.
The final systems developed which are intended to be defect-free and self healing using this method can directly inherit the existing biological structures.

Types of Self-Assembly
There are different classifications for Self assembly. One way of classifying is intramolecular self-assembly and intermolecular self-assembly. The term molecular self-assembly often refers to intermolecular self-assembly, whereas the intramolecular analog is commonly known as folding. The protein folding theory tries to predict the tertiary and quaternary structure with the primarys information. (4 Jelercic 2009, p.4) Protein folding comes under intramolecular self-assembling molecules which assemble from the random coil conformation into a definite stable structure like secondary and tertiary structure. The formation of a micelle by surfactant molecules in solution comes under intermolecular self-assembly which form supramolecular assemblies like quaternary structure.

The other classification includes two kinds of self assembly  static and dynamic.
Static self-assembly involves systems that are at global or local equilibrium and do not dissipate energy. Static self-assembly involves systems currently at global or local equilibrium and which are not exothermic in nature. (12 Whitesides  Grzybowski 2002, p.2).

As the name refers, static self-assembly required external energy to be provided for the reaction to happen. This can be proving thermal, electrical or mere stirring. The formation of the crystal structure of ribosome, Lipid bilayer formation, base pairing and protein folding are classic examples of static self-assembly.

In Dynamic self-assembly, various interactions amongst the components which are responsible for the formation of structures or patterns occur if the system is exothermic. (12 Whitesides  Grzybowski 2002, p.2).

The patterns resulting in oscillating chemical reactions in time or space domain due to either chemical reaction or diffusion can be brought under the aegis of Dynamic self-assembly. Actin filaments, histones, chromatin and protein aggregates in signaling pathways come under dynamic self-assembly.

Figure  Pictorial representation of various self assembly methods (7 Ozin, et al., 2009)
Principles of Molecular Self-Assembly
For Self assembly molecular programming, supramolecular chemist needs to create nano- or macro scale structures which are composed of certain smaller molecules with defined control over its size, pattern and resolution or periodicity.
Principles of Self-assembly include
Components - which are a group of molecules or segments of a macromolecule that interact with one another which may be the same or different.

Interactions  The method in which equilibrium is attained amongst molecules during self-assembly through attraction and repulsion. It is needed to understand that self-organization is triggered by thermodynamic process and is a non-equilibrium process and the self-assembly is a process tending towards stable equilibrium. (2 Halley  Winkler 2010).

Reversibility (or Adjustability)  refers to the ability of components to generate ordered structure during self-assembly. For the same to happen, the covalent association must be either reversible or must allow re-ordering to a pattern upon completion of forming the required pattern.

Environment  refers to the interface or media which facilitates self assembly. This is generally a solution or an interface media which allows the motion of components for adjustability. The choice of the environment is very important as it affects the entire process of self-assembly and can show in results.

Mass Transport and Agitation  The molecules are energized to be in a state of agitation. This allows mass transport for the purpose of aligning to patterns in the process of self-assembly.
Molecular self-assembly is a bottom-up methodology where the preferred structure is achieved in shape with functional groups exploring nanometer-scale devices and nanostructure materials. This methodology offers advantages such as the three-dimensional assembly, possibility of inexpensive mass fabrication and achievement of atomic feature sizes. In future molecular nanotechnology, molecular self-assembly can be used to make microchips. Challenging molecular topologies like Borromean rings have been constructed using molecular self-assembly.

Research in the self-assembly domain has been going on in multiple dimensions. This area is considered more of a science than of a technology. As there are many aspects which are hidden in this area, efforts currently are on to study the fundamental attributes of non-covalent interactions in the process of molecular building blocks creation. As referred by the term self assembly, it is narrowed down to the blocks which during the process of creation instantaneously assemble in to predefined structures and patterns. The structures thus formed are meant for functional devices and materials. This process is completely reliable and versatile. Its rugged performance has been proven with the existence of various synthetic compounds. The high reliability of these compounds is due to the intrinsic error correction in the thermodynamic process during the assembly. Once this research reaches further heights, one can expect self-assembly to be used in other areas of research, production, technology and even day-to-day activities of a common man.

The formation of nanostructures is a success in the fields of nanotechnology using molecular self assembly methods. Self-assembly of two- and three-dimensional structures of molecules and nano-clusters is being inspired by various mechanisms such as LangmuirBlodgett films, electrostatic interactions, surface forces, chemical self-assembly, hydrophobic  hydrophilic interactions, and bimolecular-mediated self-assembly techniques.

The LB films are constructed by transferring mono-layers which float on water surface on to a solid substrate. These are expected to have a wide range of applications in electronic and bio-electronic devices. (5 Langmuir-blodgett films, n.d.)

Figure-2 Schematic illustration of layer-by-layer molecular self-assembly procedure for a nano-structured thin film (3 Huie 2003).

Combinatorial tools, known as soft lithography, such as microcontact printing and dip-pen nanolithography are also available which are used in combination with self-assembly methods to up-size nano-structured assembly patterns into micrometer scale level. (3 Huie 2003).

Future of Mankind  structured self-assembly with controlled and intelligent nanotechnology
One dimensional nano-structures are being experimented in various research labs and various new products are emanating from this study. This has also helped to understand certain patterns which were not identifiable earlier. A recent work devised was a 3D macroscopic sacs and membranes through interactions between large and small molecular structures. Further this was used to study piezoelectricity in non-centrosymmetric clusters and significant increase in conductivity in hexabenzocoronene nanotubes and Dendron-rod-coil ribbons. A extended study on modular structure termed the Dendron-rod-coil (DRC) to study each segment of this supra molecular structure. (8 Palmer  Stupp n.d).

News was on high when the computer giant IBM produced the first ever application of self-assembly technique in chip manufacturing. This has paved way for a huge area of improvement in the processor speeds and miniaturizing the electronic components.

Ongoing research in the self-assembly nanotechnology area have grown manifold in the recent years. The projects and research in this area are now directed in finding out the hidden treasure which exists around us in all forms various to facilitate better life for future generations.  
Laboratory research is on going for developing nano-particles of semiconductors into twisted ribbon structures using light as agitation source. The geometrical structure that resulted are in micro scale are in researched for further possible usage.

Recently revealed research has demonstrated that control in spatial distribution of nano particles is possible with energy sources such as light and heat without any chemical presence.
The achievement through this research was to obtain linear array structures of varied lengths in the nano scale. This research opens various ways to generate nano particles which can be used for the storage of solar energy which is now practically limited.

The self assembly was recently photographed using X-Ray crystallography and this became a source of more information than from the simulation which was done using computers. Given here is a wheel structure developed during one such experiment.

(10 Scientists photograph nano-particle self-assembly, 2010)
Post this capture, the scope of growth of nanotechnology base self-assembly is seen in the electronics  mainly semi conductors, medicine and drugs, creation of nano-sensors and nano functional equipment in the near future.

The devising of Nano-particle one-dimensional photonic crystals has opened the think tanks for developing improved devices for optical and optoelectronic equipments. This has popped up a new interdisciplinary field called Molecular Optoelectronics which uses the principles of the molecular bistability, conformational and positional switching. (14 Wild et al., n.d.). Another upcoming prospective area is in the field where this technology is inherently present  thats in the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). Understanding DNA itself was a challenge a few years back but now scientists are targeting to use the technology to store intelligence in the DNA and the formation of the double helix from two single strands using self-assembly. (1 Biomolecular self-assembly, 2005).

Figure These two hinged DNA arms (a) act as selfassembling tweezers when a third fuel strand is added (b) and pulls the two arms together (c). (9 Quellette n.d.). Flexible five digit monochrome display for smart cards has been developed using Fluid Self-Assembly in which large ICs are deposited on plastic substrates. This has found wide range applications in wireless, smartcard and e-technology business. (9 Quellette n.d.). A new array of lasers has been triggered with the advent of Dye-Anchored mesoporous metal-oxide electro-chemiluminiscent device. This laser has the ability of having a broad emission of the dye in a wide range of wavelengths in continuous or discrete patterns. The advantage over solid state laser or the gas laser is the selection of medium which is a solution in the case of self assembled technique.

Earlier, generation of nanocarbons required harsh chemical reactions to open up terminal ends. But now with self assembly it is possible to create the same with intrinsically open ends. (11 Shimizu n.d.). Miniaturized gas ionized sensors using nano carbons have marked the advent of this technology in the aerospace and nuclear engineering as well. These new nano tubes are compact, battery-powered and a quite safe. The sharp tips of nanotubes create high electric fields with low voltages utilization. This lowers the breakdown voltages manifold in comparison to traditional electrodes. (6 Modi, et al., 2003)

Figure Nanotubes generated using self-assembly. (11 Shimizu n.d.).
Optically encrypted and packed silver release in single dimensional photonic crystals is the latest creation of self-assembly using nanotechnology. These aid both in fundamental research and advanced labs and are picking up significant momentum in the commercial market as well.
Nanowires are the next big thing in production although its not seen to a normal eye. Recent chalked out strategy was to create ultrathin nanowires of Sb2S3 and Bi2S3. These wired have exceptional internal necklace structure, flexibility and colloidal stability. (7 Ozin, et al., 2009).

Another study funded by the department of energy has succeeded in creating nutraceuticals which is pharmacy combined with nutrients. With this study, a new set of capsules with nano sized particles are expected to be rolled out.

The development of supramolecular chemistry and nanochemistry experienced great growth in past couple of decades and has come up as important cross-disciplinary field. Nanoscience is developed from physics and materials science with the perception that at the nanoscale, physical properties of matter would undergo transitions and was mostly foreseen for inorganic substances.
Supramolecular chemistry is directed to the concept that chemists could control non-covalent bonds in all structures with the same accuracy achieved by synthetic organic chemistry and the principles of this demonstrated the possibility to craft the size, shape, and internal structure of nanoscale objects. As any other advancement in science, effective and intelligent usage is the need of the hour. These techniques have immense advantages most of which is still unknown. Scientists and researchers should focus their ability and knowledge in this domain for a constructive purpose enabling a cleaner and greener earth.